Адрес конфы тот же.
[email protected]

​

​

​

Да я как-бы не по образованию медикус. Имею интерес (подогретый моей первой любовью - медсестрой, нам тогда было по 17 лет и было это давно). Пирогова до сих пор регулярно перечитываю (особенно касательно ранений грудной клетки), лол. Одно время на дващах постил.
Пирогова этого я спас из сортира съемной хаты. Издание 1936 года, серьёзный бизнес (пусть и малость заплесневелое).
В тамошнем туалете можно было воспитать универсала-учёного. Там были начала матана, акушерства, химии и физики. Я заседал там на полтора часа, пока хватало сигарет.

​​

>>1830308

>нам тогда было по 17 лет

Мне семнадцать лет и это сейчас.

​​

>>1830340

Мне 26. У нас мог быть ребёнок. Был аборт, расходенрие и всё такое. Сейчас у неё есть сын, коттедж в нашем ДС и отличный муж. У меня есть квартира, интернеты и ёбанное ничего.

>>1830375
А вот ребёнка я бы оставил. Очень хочется сделать себе полсотни детей по всей планете.

​​

>>1830410
Ты просто хочешь чтобы они тебя обеспечивали в старости.

>>1830410

Было довольно голодно. За наш зайчик не давали даже в Молодечно, за пару лет до этого родители ходили на рынок торговать тем, что есть. Я до сих пор помню запах жареной мойвы - жрать было особо нечего. $30 в месяц были для меня мечтой. Куда уж тут семья, у 17-летнего распиздяя.
Разбередил я сам себя.

>>1830410

Алсо, я подозреваю, что пара-тройка детей у меня есть. Боязно.

c: steb

>>1830473
У меня чисто научный интерес. Дело в том, что моя бабушка выздоровела от рака груди, а мать уже двадцать лет болеет раком печени и всё никак не сдохнет. Я сам выздоровел от язвы желудка и сломанной спины.
Очень интересно узнать что и в какой мере получат мои дети.

​

>>1830524

Эти заболевания не наследуются.

>>1830561
А вот предрасположеность к раку - таки наследуется.

>>1830561
Знаю, потому что сам родился здоровым, хоть и недоношенным. В детстве постоянно простужался, а потом оказалось что у меня аллергия на антибиотики и большинство прививок. Потом мои глаза из карих превратились в зелёные, а волосы стали рыжими. К тому же безвозвратно исчез весь загар.

​​

​

​​

Положил под язык перемолотые кофейные зерна и прихлёбываю очень горячую воду.

>>1831039

Warum?

​​

>>1830604
пиздец ты мутант
куклоёбство до добра не доводит ололо

>>1831059
Не понел.
>>1831136
У большинства людей мышцы приводящие в движение уши - рудиментарные. А у меня уши очень даже двигаются, причем в любую сторону. Не знаю с чем это связано.

​

>>1831177

Warum -> почему?

​

>>1831268
Трезвею.

​​

Заебали.
начну форсить годного художника заместо этого говна.

​​

Спасибо за бамп, бро.

а зачем вам этот тред, уважаемые?

>>1831445

ЧТОЭТА ЗА УЖАС?

​

Святой Путин не одобряет кукло-тред!

​​

Оясуми, Куклочан!

>>1831582
Сладких снов.

>>1831582
Оясуми.

Оясуми.
Это был сложный день, а завтра - ещё сложнее.

​

SAGE

SAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGE

>>1831652
Спокойной ночи.

SAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

>>1831671
Доставь додзиков Рейндж Мураты.

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

Странно это все. Вот весь двач бурлит говном, а у вас так тихо, уютно. Прямо даже хочется поселиться, но я не куклоеб.

​​

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

>>1831717
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
понял?

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

​

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
ГДЕ ПОМОШНИКИ САГАТЬ?

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

​​

Сагер, уходи. Ты уныл.

уселся в уюте куклотреда и начал ерзать в поисках камина

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

kofag: это с ычана кто то
[04:17:02]
_tsu: вот еще один реквест
[04:17:06]
_tsu: http://rghost.ru/415286
[04:17:06]
C.C.: Title: Vechera_Chi.mp3 — RGhost — файлообменник
[04:17:12]
d1mk0: мб dj.Inkognitov
[04:17:13]
Ведроc: [email protected]
[04:17:16]
d1mk0: ?
[04:17:23]
azziatkofag: Kanaria: поставь занукоку плиз
[04:17:37]
Ведроc: с другой стороны, зачем ему искать себя
[04:17:39]
nekone: >Идиот-клуб нумер [7]
[04:17:46] Тема: 12012 - BURN ⋖⋯ dj Kana [skype: dj.kana] (установлена Miria)
[04:17:48]
anon28_07_2009: Бред )
[04:17:53]
anon28_07_2009: Это я минианон )
[04:17:59]
Kanaria: йо
[04:18:00]
nekone: э
[04:18:02]
Kanaria: твой скрин?
[04:18:05]
d1mk0: anon28_07_2009: няка
[04:18:05]
anon28_07_2009: У меня лолифокс
[04:18:06]
nekone: ОХАЁ МИНИАНОН

[04:22:14]
_tsu: +
[04:23:11]
Mor: я за то чтобы канарочка прочитал пасту свлим сладким голосом МНЕ
[04:23:19] Тема: 79.9 - BGM ⋖⋯ dj Kana [skype: dj.kana] (установлена Miria)

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> <title>Два.ч — > </span>&nbsp; <br /> <span class="filesize">Файл: <a target="_blank" href="/b/src/1250986516316.jpg">1250986516316.jpg</a> -(<em>30кб, 840x525</em>)</span> <span class="thumbnailmsg">Показана уменьшенная копия, ориг

El compаñero: Катюша!
[04:16:30]
Corovaneer: Катьюшиа!
[04:16:30]
nekone: ЛХБЄёиЗъ - ї¦ЗпЙЇ
[04:16:30]
nekone: хм
[04:16:30]
vnezapno: нет ну под такую музыку я просто обязан сыграть в доту с пендосами
[04:16:30]
_tsu: Спасибо, Кана. Передай приветы защитникам дальневосточных рубежей Родины штоле...
[04:16:30]
nekone: метастазный бот давно в кодировках не сосал
[04:16:30]
nekone: vnezapno, какой левел в гарене?
[04:16:30] Тема: 79.9 - BGM ⋖⋯ dj Kana [skype: dj.kana] (установлена Miria)
[04:16:30]
vnezapno: под дотой я теперь подразумеваю HoN
[04:16:30]
vnezapno: гарену вертел на хую
[04:16:30]
nekone: ХоН?
[04:16:30]
nekone: чтоа?
[04:16:30]
El compаñero: турецкий
[04:16:30]
Kanaria: http://rghost.ru/415274
[04:16:30]
C.C.: Title: Безымянный.png — RGhost — файлообменник
[04:16:30]
vnezapno: Heroes of Newerth жк
[04:16:30]
_tsu: Лол... я ее тебе рекветил^^
[04:16:30]
vnezapno: *же
[04:16:30]
nekone: лол
[04:16:42]
El compаñero: А я 400к гет взял
[04:16:47]
nekone: а что в скрине ужасного?
[04:16:48]
d1mk0: у тя иожет быть китайский не поставлен
[04:16:52]
azziatkofag: это с ычана кто то
[04:17:02]
_tsu: вот еще один реквест
[04:17:06]
_tsu: http://rghost.ru/415286
[04:17:06]
C.C.: Title: Vechera_Chi.mp3 — RGhost — файлообменник
[04:17:12]
d1mk0: мб dj.Inkognitov
[04:17:13]
Ведроc: [email protected]

Rozen Maiden Thread Вск 23 Авг 2009 02:24:14 №1830144

Новый тред же!
Старый http://www.2-ch.ru/b/res/1803071.html в бамплимите.

>> Вск 23 Авг 2009 02:27:58 №1830222

Файл: 1250980078526.jpg -(90кб, 863x1200) Показана уменьшенная копия, оригинал по клику.
90

Адрес конфы тот же.
[email protected]

>>1831788
Сугойные пикчи, /b/рат. Доброта и понимание же.

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

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d / dg / ad / pr / ph] - [au / b / bg / bo / c / di / ew / f / fa / fi / fl / hr / ja / me / mo / mu / n / ne / o / p / pa / r / re / s / sp / t / td / tr / tv / vg / w / wh / wm / wp] - [a / aa / fd / k / m / ma] - [fg / g / gg / h / ho / ls / u / y] - [Главная]
Два.ч — Бред

d / dg / ad / pr / ph] - [au / b / bg / bo / c / di / ew / f / fa / fi / fl / hr / ja / me / mo / mu / n / ne / o / p / pa / r / re / s / sp / t / td / tr / tv / vg / w / wh / wm / wp] - [a / aa / fd / k / m / ma] - [fg / g / gg / h / ho / ls / u / y] - [Главная]
Два.ч — Бред d / dg / ad / pr / ph] - [au / b / bg / bo / c / di / ew / f / fa / fi / fl / hr / ja / me / mo / mu / n / ne / o / p / pa / r / re / s / sp / t / td / tr / tv / vg / w / wh / wm / wp] - [a / aa / fd / k / m / ma] - [fg / g / gg / h / ho / ls / u / y] - [Главная]
Два.ч — Бред

adsdsaasdsdsfdsfdsdsgsagafdfdas

sagedsa

saaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaage

*  Разрешённые типы файлов: GIF, JPG, PNG
* Максимальный размер файла 1536 килобайт и 2048×2048.
* Изображения размером более 200x200 точек будут уменьшены.

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>>1831832

Это прелюдия к жестокому фурри паку, но выложу я его не сюда. Здесь уютно же.

[Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад] [Назад]

ФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайлФайл

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>>1831832
Заходите в наш леслитред, у нас так же. Только чур без вайпа.

Муратафаг, ты нас покинул?

Спокойной ночи, куклочан.

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sagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesage

sagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesage

Main article: History of wikis
Wiki Wiki Shuttle at Honolulu International Airport.

WikiWikiWeb was the first site to be called a wiki.[6] Ward Cunningham started developing WikiWikiWeb in 1994, and installed it on the Internet domain c2.com on March 25, 1995. It was named by Cunningham, who remembered a Honolulu International Airport counter employee telling him to take the "Wiki Wiki" shuttle bus that runs between the airport's terminals. According to Cunningham, "I chose wiki-wiki as an alliterative substitute for 'quick' and thereby avoided naming this stuff quick-web."[7][8]

Cunningham was in part inspired by Apple's HyperCard. Apple had designed a system allowing users to create virtual "card stacks" supporting links among the various cards. Cunningham developed Vannevar Bush's ideas by allowing users to "comment on and change one another's text".[2][9] In the early 2000s, wikis were increasingly adopted in enterprise as collaborative software. Common uses included project communication, intranets, and documentation, initially for technical users. Today some companies use wikis as their only collaborative software and as a replacement for static intranets, and some schools and universities use wikis to enhance group learning. There may be greater use of wikis behind firewalls than on the public Internet.

On March 15, 2007, wiki entered the online Oxford English Dictionary.[10]

Ward Cunningham, and co-author Bo Leuf, in their book The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web described the essence of the Wiki concept as follows:

* A wiki invites all users to edit any page or to create new pages within the wiki Web site, using only a plain-vanilla Web browser without any extra add-ons.
* Wiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation almost intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not.
* A wiki is not a carefully crafted site for casual visitors. Instead, it seeks to involve the visitor in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the Web site landscape.

A wiki enables documents to be written collaboratively, in a simple markup language using a web browser. A single page in a wiki website is referred to as a "wiki page", while the entire collection of pages, which are usually well interconnected by hyperlinks, is "the wiki". A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, and searching through information.

A defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated. Generally, there is no review before modifications are accepted. Many wikis are open to alteration by the general public without requiring them to register user accounts. Sometimes logging in for a session is recommended, to create a "wiki-signature" cookie for signing edits automatically. Many edits, however, can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online. This can facilitate abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them.

Editing wiki pages

There are many different ways in which wikis have users edit the content. Ordinarily, the structure and formatting of wiki pages are specified with a simplified markup language, sometimes known as "wikitext". For example, starting a line of text with an asterisk ("*") is often used to enter it in a bulleted list. The style and syntax of wikitexts can vary greatly among wiki implementations, some of which also allow HTML tags. The reason for taking this approach is that HTML, with its many cryptic tags, is not very legible, making it hard to edit. Wikis therefore favour plain text editing, with fewer and simpler conventions than HTML, for indicating style and structure. Although limiting access to HTML and cascading style sheets (CSS) of wikis limits user ability to alter the structure and formatting of wiki content, there are some benefits. Limited access to CSS promotes consistency in the look and feel and having JavaScript disabled prevents a user from implementing code, which may limit access for other users.

"Take some more [[tea]]," the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly.

"I've had nothing yet," Alice replied in an offended tone: "so I can't take more."

"You mean you can't take ''less''," said the Hatter: "it's very easy to take ''more'' than nothing."

<p>"Take some more <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a> ," the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly.</p>

<p>"I've had nothing yet," Alice replied in an offended tone: "so I can't take more."</p>

<p>"You mean you can't take <i>less</i>," said the Hatter: "it's very easy to take <i>more</i> than nothing."</p>

"Take some more tea," the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly.

"I've had nothing yet," Alice replied in an offended tone: "so I can't take more."

"You mean you can't take less," said the Hatter: "it's very easy to take more than nothing."

(Quotation above from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll)

Increasingly, wikis are making "WYSIWYG" ("What You See Is What You Get") editing available to users, usually by means of JavaScript or an ActiveX control that translates graphically entered formatting instructions, such as "bold" and "italics", into the corresponding HTML tags or wikitext. In those implementations, the markup of a newly edited, marked-up version of the page is generated and submitted to the server transparently, and the user is shielded from this technical detail. However, WYSIWYG controls do not always provide all of the features available in wikitext.

Most wikis keep a record of changes made to wiki pages; often every version of the page is stored. This means that authors can revert to an older version of the page, should it be necessary because a mistake has been made or the page has been vandalized. Many implementations (for example MediaWiki) allow users to supply an "edit summary" when they edit a page. This is a short piece of text (usually one line) summarizing the changes. It is not inserted into the article, but is stored along with that revision of the page, allowing users to explain what has been done and why; this is similar to a log message when committing changes to a revision control system.

Navigation

Within the text of most pages there are usually a large number of hypertext links to other pages. This form of non-linear navigation is more "native" to wiki than structured/formalized navigation schemes. That said, users can also create any number of index or table of contents pages, with hierarchical categorization or whatever form of organization they like. These may be challenging to maintain by hand, as multiple authors create and delete pages in an ad hoc manner. Wikis generally provide one or more ways to categorize or tag pages to support the maintenance of such index pages.

Most wikis have a backlink feature, which displays all pages that link to a given page.

It is typical in a wiki to create links to pages that do not yet exist, as a way to invite others to share what they know about a subject new to the wiki.

Linking and creating pages

Links are created using a specific syntax, the so-called "link pattern" (also see CURIE). Originally, most wikis used CamelCase to name pages and create links. These are produced by capitalizing words in a phrase and removing the spaces between them (the word "CamelCase" is itself an example). While CamelCase makes linking very easy, it also leads to links which are written in a form that deviates from the standard spelling. CamelCase-based wikis are instantly recognizable because they have many links with names such as "TableOfContents" and "BeginnerQuestions." It is possible for a wiki to render the visible anchor for such links "pretty" by reinserting spaces, and possibly also reverting to lower case. However, this reprocessing of the link to improve the readability of the anchor is limited by the loss of capitalization information caused by CamelCase reversal. For example, "RichardWagner" should be rendered as "Richard Wagner," whereas "PopularMusic" should be rendered as "popular music." There is no easy way to determine which capital letters should remain capitalized. As a result, many wikis now have "free linking" using brackets, and some disable CamelCase by default.

Trust and security

Controlling changes
History comparison reports highlight the changes between two revisions of a page.

Wikis are generally designed with the philosophy of making it easy to correct mistakes, rather than making it difficult to make them. Thus, while wikis are very open, they provide a means to verify the validity of recent additions to the body of pages. The most prominent, on almost every wiki, is the "Recent Changes" page—a specific list numbering recent edits, or a list of edits made within a given time frame.[11] Some wikis can filter the list to remove minor edits and edits made by automatic importing scripts ("bots").[12]

From the change log, other functions are accessible in most wikis: the revision history shows previous page versions and the diff feature highlights the changes between two revisions. Using the revision history, an editor can view and restore a previous version of the article. The diff feature can be used to decide whether or not this is necessary. A regular wiki user can view the diff of an edit listed on the "Recent Changes" page and, if it is an unacceptable edit, consult the history, restoring a previous revision; this process is more or less streamlined, depending on the wiki software used.[13]

In case unacceptable edits are missed on the "recent changes" page, some wiki engines provide additional content control. It can be monitored to ensure that a page, or a set of pages, keeps its quality. A person willing to maintain pages will be warned of modifications to the pages, allowing him or her to verify the validity of new editions quickly.[14]

Searching

Most wikis offer at least a title search, and sometimes a full-text search. The scalability of the search depends on whether the wiki engine uses a database. Indexed database access is necessary for high speed searches on large wikis. Alternatively, external search engines such as Google can sometimes be used on wikis with limited searching functions in order to obtain more precise results. However, a search engine's indexes can be very out of date (days, weeks or months) for many websites.

Software architecture

Wiki software is a type of collaborative software that runs a wiki system, allowing web pages to be created and edited using a common web browser. It is usually implemented as an application server that runs on one or more web servers. The content is stored in a file system, and changes to the content are stored in a relational database management system. Alternatively, personal wikis run as a standalone application on a single computer. For example: WikidPad.

Trustworthiness

Critics of publicly editable wiki systems argue that these systems could be easily tampered with, while proponents argue that the community of users can catch malicious content and correct it.[2] Lars Aronsson, a data systems specialist, summarizes the controversy as follows:
“ Most people, when they first learn about the wiki concept, assume that a Web site that can be edited by anybody would soon be rendered useless by destructive input. It sounds like offering free spray cans next to a grey concrete wall. The only likely outcome would be ugly graffiti and simple tagging, and many artistic efforts would not be long lived. Still, it seems to work very well.[6]

Security

The open philosophy of most wikis, allowing anyone to edit content, does not ensure that every editor is well-meaning. Vandalism can be a major problem. In larger wiki sites, such as those run by the Wikimedia Foundation, vandalism can go unnoticed for a period of time. Wikis by their very nature are susceptible to intentional disruption, known as "trolling". Wikis tend to take a soft security[15] approach to the problem of vandalism; making damage easy to undo rather than attempting to prevent damage. Larger wikis often employ sophisticated methods, such as bots that automatically identify and revert vandalism and JavaScript enhancements that show characters that have been added in each edit. In this way vandalism can be limited to just "minor vandalism" or "sneaky vandalism", where the characters added/eliminated are so few that bots do not identify them and users do not pay much attention to them.

The amount of vandalism a wiki receives depends on how open the wiki is. For instance, some wikis allow unregistered users, identified by their IP addresses, to edit content, whilst others limit this function to just registered users. Most wikis allow anonymous editing without an account,[16] but give registered users additional editing functions; on most wikis, becoming a registered user is a short and simple process. Some wikis require an additional waiting period before gaining access to certain tools. For example, on the English Wikipedia, registered users can only rename pages if their account is at least four days old. Other wikis such as the Portuguese Wikipedia use an editing requirement instead of a time requirement, granting extra tools after the user has made a certain number of edits to prove their trustworthiness and usefulness as an editor. Basically, "closed up" wikis are more secure and reliable but grow slowly, whilst more open wikis grow at a steady rate but result in being an easy target for vandalism. A clear example of this would be that of Wikipedia and Citizendium. The first is extremely open, allowing anyone with a computer and internet access to edit it, making it grow rapidly, whilst the latter requires the users' real name and a biography of themselves, affecting the growth of the wiki but creating an almost "vandalism-free" ambiance.

Communities

User communities

Many wiki communities are private, particularly within enterprises. They are often used as internal documentation for in-house systems and applications.

There also exist WikiNodes which are pages on wikis that describe related wikis. They are usually organized as neighbors and delegates. A neighbor wiki is simply a wiki that may discuss similar content or may otherwise be of interest. A delegate wiki is a wiki that agrees to have certain content delegated to that wiki.

One way of finding a wiki on a specific subject is to follow the wiki-node network from wiki to wiki; another is to take a Wiki "bus tour", for example: Wikipedia's Tour Bus Stop. Domain names containing "wiki" are growing in popularity to support specific niches.

For those interested in creating their own wiki, there are publicly available "wiki farms", some of which can also make private, password-protected wikis. PBwiki, Socialtext, Wetpaint, and Wikia are popular examples of such services. For more information, see List of wiki farms. Note that free wiki farms generally contain advertising on every page.

The English language Wikipedia has the largest user base among wikis on the World Wide Web[17] and ranks in the top 10 among all Web sites in terms of traffic.[18] Other large wikis include the WikiWikiWeb, Memory Alpha, Wikitravel, World66 and Susning.nu, a Swedish-language knowledge base.

Research communities

Wikis are an active topic of research. Two well-known wiki conferences are

* The International Symposium on Wikis (WikiSym), an conference dedicated to wiki research and practice in general
* Wikimania, a conference dedicated to research and practice of Wikimedia Foundation projects like Wikipedia.

There are also numerous small-scale educational communities using the Wiki software or variants. Wikidot's 'Philosophical Investigations' is one of the better known.[19]

In an April 2009 article for the London Times Higher academic newspaper, the philosopher Martin Cohen predicted that this 'bottom-up' model would in due course supersede the ambitious "libraries of All Knowledge' like Wikipedia and Citizendium.[19]

See also

* Comparison of wiki software
* Content management system
* List of learning resources – courses, instruction videos, slides, text books, quizzes, etc, related to Wikipedia and other Wikis.
* List of wikis
* Massively distributed collaboration
* Support wiki
* Universal Edit Button

References

1. ^ wiki, n. Oxford English Dictionary (draft entry, March 2007) Requires Paid Subscription
2. ^ a b c d "wiki". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1. London: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2007. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1192819/wiki. Retrieved 2008-04-10.
3. ^ Cunningham, Ward (2002-06-27). "What is a Wiki". WikiWikiWeb. http://www.wiki.org/wiki.cgi?WhatIsWiki. Retrieved 2008-04-10.
4. ^ "Hawaiian Words; Hawaiian to English". http://www.mauimapp.com/moolelo/hwnwdshw.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-19.
5. ^ "The wiki principle". http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=6794228. Retrieved 2008-08-11.
6. ^ a b (Ebersbach 2008, p. 10)
7. ^ Cunningham, Ward (2003-11-01). "Correspondence on the Etymology of Wiki". WikiWikiWeb. http://c2.com/doc/etymology.html. Retrieved 2007-03-09.
8. ^ Cunningham, Ward (2008-02-25). "Wiki History". WikiWikiWeb. http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiHistory. Retrieved 2007-03-09.
9. ^ Cunningham, Ward (2007-07-26). "Wiki Wiki Hyper Card". WikiWikiWeb. http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiWikiHyperCard. Retrieved 2007-03-09.
10. ^ Diamond, Graeme (2007-03-01). "March 2007 new words, OED". Oxford University Press. http://dictionary.oed.com/news/newwords.html. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
11. ^ (Ebersbach 2008, p. 20)
12. ^ (Ebersbach 2008, p. 54)
13. ^ (Ebersbach 2008, p. 178)
14. ^ (Ebersbach 2008, p. 109)
15. ^ "Soft Security". UseModWiki. 2006-09-20. http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?SoftSecurity. Retrieved 2007-03-09.
16. ^ (Ebersbach 2008, p. 108)
17. ^ "WikiStats by S23". S23Wiki. 2008-04-03. http://s23.org/wikistats/largest_html.php?sort=users_desc&th=8000&lines=500. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
18. ^ "Alexa Web Search – Top 500". Alexa Internet. http://www.alexa.com/site/ds/top_sites?ts_mode=global&lang=none. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
19. ^ a b 'Font of all wisdom, or not?' by Martin Cohen, Times Higher Education, 9 April 2009, accessed April 13, 2009.

* Ebersbach, Anja (2008), Wiki: Web Collaboration, Springer Science+Business Media, ISBN 3540351507 

Further reading

* Mader, Stewart (2007-12-10). Wikipatterns. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0470223626. 
* Tapscott, Don (2008-04-17). Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything. Portfolio Hardcover. ISBN 1591841933. 
* Leuf, Bo (2001-04-13). The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 020171499X. 

External links
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* Wikis at HowStuffWorks.
* WikiWikiWeb, the first wiki
* Wikipatterns.com A toolbox of patterns and anti-patterns, and a guide to major stages of wiki adoption that explores patterns to apply at each stage.
* Exploring with Wiki An interview with Ward Cunningham, by Bill Verners.
* WikiMatrix website for comparing wikis.

А я просто пережду сагеров и вернусь с теплом, добротой и заботый в этот уютный тред.

Cancer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Cancer (disambiguation).

This article needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2009)

Cancer (medical term: malignant neoplasm) is a class of diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled growth (division beyond the normal limits), invasion (intrusion on and destruction of adjacent tissues), and sometimes metastasis (spread to other locations in the body via lymph or blood). These three malignant properties of cancers differentiate them from benign tumors, which are self-limited, and do not invade or metastasize. Most cancers form a tumor but some, like leukemia, do not. The branch of medicine concerned with the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cancer is oncology.

Cancer may affect people at all ages, even fetuses, but the risk for most varieties increases with age.[1] Cancer causes about 13% of all human deaths.[2] According to the American Cancer Society, 7.6 million people died from cancer in the world during 2007.[3] Cancers can affect all animals.

Nearly all cancers are caused by abnormalities in the genetic material of the transformed cells.[4] These abnormalities may be due to the effects of carcinogens, such as tobacco smoke, radiation, chemicals, or infectious agents. Other cancer-promoting genetic abnormalities may be randomly acquired through errors in DNA replication, or are inherited, and thus present in all cells from birth. The heritability of cancers are usually affected by complex interactions between carcinogens and the host's genome. New aspects of the genetics of cancer pathogenesis, such as DNA methylation, and microRNAs are increasingly recognized as important.

Genetic abnormalities found in cancer typically affect two general classes of genes. Cancer-promoting oncogenes are typically activated in cancer cells, giving those cells new properties, such as hyperactive growth and division, protection against programmed cell death, loss of respect for normal tissue boundaries, and the ability to become established in diverse tissue environments. Tumor suppressor genes are then inactivated in cancer cells, resulting in the loss of normal functions in those cells, such as accurate DNA replication, control over the cell cycle, orientation and adhesion within tissues, and interaction with protective cells of the immune system.

Diagnosis usually requires the histologic examination of a tissue biopsy specimen by a pathologist, although the initial indication of malignancy can be symptoms or radiographic imaging abnormalities. Most cancers can be treated and some cured, depending on the specific type, location, and stage. Once diagnosed, cancer is usually treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. As research develops, treatments are becoming more specific for different varieties of cancer. There has been significant progress in the development of targeted therapy drugs that act specifically on detectable molecular abnormalities in certain tumors, and which minimize damage to normal cells. The prognosis of cancer patients is most influenced by the type of cancer, as well as the stage, or extent of the disease. In addition, histologic grading and the presence of specific molecular markers can also be useful in establishing prognosis, as well as in determining individual treatments.

Contents
[hide]

* 1 Glossary
* 2 Classification
* 3 Signs and symptoms
* 4 Causes
      o 4.1 Mutation: chemical carcinogens
      o 4.2 Mutation: ionizing radiation
      o 4.3 Viral or bacterial infection
      o 4.4 Hormonal imbalances
      o 4.5 Immune system dysfunction
      o 4.6 Heredity
      o 4.7 Other causes
* 5 Mechanism
      o 5.1 Epigenetics
      o 5.2 Oncogenes
      o 5.3 Tumor suppressor genes
      o 5.4 Cancer cell biology
            + 5.4.1 Clonal evolution
            + 5.4.2 Biological properties of cancer cells
* 6 Prevention
      o 6.1 Modifiable ("lifestyle") risk factors
      o 6.2 Diet
      o 6.3 Vitamins
      o 6.4 Chemoprevention
      o 6.5 Genetic testing
      o 6.6 Vaccination
      o 6.7 Screening
* 7 Diagnosis
      o 7.1 Investigation
      o 7.2 Biopsy
* 8 Treatment
      o 8.1 Surgery
      o 8.2 Radiation therapy
      o 8.3 Chemotherapy
      o 8.4 Targeted therapies
      o 8.5 Immunotherapy
      o 8.6 Hormonal therapy
      o 8.7 Angiogenesis inhibitors
      o 8.8 Symptom control
      o 8.9 Treatment trials
      o 8.10 Complementary and alternative
      o 8.11 In pregnancy
      o 8.12 In utero
      o 8.13 Ultrasound energy
* 9 Prognosis
      o 9.1 Emotional impact
* 10 Epidemiology
* 11 History
* 12 Research directions
* 13 References
      o 13.1 General references
* 14 External links

Glossary
Further information: List of oncology-related terms

The following closely related terms may be used to designate abnormal growths:

* Tumor or tumour: originally, it meant any abnormal swelling, lump or mass. In current English, however, the word tumor has become synonymous with neoplasm, specifically solid neoplasm. Note that some neoplasms, such as leukemia, do not form tumors.
* Neoplasm: the scientific term to describe an abnormal proliferation of genetically altered cells. Neoplasms can be benign or malignant:
      o Malignant neoplasm or malignant tumor: synonymous with cancer.
      o Benign neoplasm or benign tumor: a tumor (solid neoplasm) that stops growing by itself, does not invade other tissues and does not form metastases.
* Invasive tumor is another synonym of cancer. The name refers to invasion of surrounding tissues.
* Pre-malignancy, pre-cancer or non-invasive tumor: A neoplasm that is not invasive but has the potential to progress to cancer (become invasive) if left untreated. These lesions are, in order of increasing potential for cancer, atypia, dysplasia and carcinoma in situ.

The following terms can be used to describe a cancer:

* Screening: a test done on healthy people to detect tumors before they become apparent. A mammogram is a screening test.
* Diagnosis: the confirmation of the cancerous nature of a lump. This usually requires a biopsy or removal of the tumor by surgery, followed by examination by a pathologist.
* Surgical excision: the removal of a tumor by a surgeon.
      o Surgical margins: the evaluation by a pathologist of the edges of the tissue removed by the surgeon to determine if the tumor was removed completely ("negative margins") or if tumor was left behind ("positive margins").
* Grade: a number (usually on a scale of 3) established by a pathologist to describe the degree of resemblance of the tumor to the surrounding benign tissue.
* Stage: a number (usually on a scale of 4) established by the oncologist to describe the degree of invasion of the body by the tumor.
* Recurrence: new tumors that appear at the site of the original tumor after surgery.
* Metastasis: new tumors that appear far from the original tumor.
* Transformation: the concept that a low-grade tumor transforms to a high-grade tumor over time. Example: Richter's transformation.
* Chemotherapy: treatment with drugs.
* Radiation therapy: treatment with radiations.
* Adjuvant therapy: treatment, either chemotherapy or radiation therapy, given after surgery to kill the remaining cancer cells.
* Prognosis: the probability of cure after the therapy. It is usually expressed as a probability of survival five years after diagnosis. Alternatively, it can be expressed as the number of years when 50% of the patients are still alive. Both numbers are derived from statistics accumulated with hundreds of similar patients to give a Kaplan-Meier curve.

Classification
Further information: List of cancer types
A large invasive ductal carcinoma in a mastectomy specimen.

Cancers are classified by the type of cell that resembles the tumor and, therefore, the tissue presumed to be the origin of the tumor. These are the histology and the location, respectively. Examples of general categories include:

* Carcinoma: Malignant tumors derived from epithelial cells. This group represents the most common cancers, including the common forms of breast, prostate, lung and colon cancer.
* Sarcoma: Malignant tumors derived from connective tissue, or mesenchymal cells.
* Lymphoma and leukemia: Malignancies derived from hematopoietic (blood-forming) cells
* Germ cell tumor: Tumors derived from totipotent cells. In adults most often found in the testicle and ovary; in fetuses, babies, and young children most often found on the body midline, particularly at the tip of the tailbone; in horses most often found at the poll (base of the skull).
* Blastic tumor or blastoma: A tumor (usually malignant) which resembles an immature or embryonic tissue. Many of these tumors are most common in children.

Malignant tumors (cancers) are usually named using -carcinoma, -sarcoma or -blastoma as a suffix, with the Latin or Greek word for the organ of origin as the root. For instance, a cancer of the liver is called hepatocarcinoma; a cancer of the fat cells is called liposarcoma. For common cancers, the English organ name is used. For instance, the most common type of breast cancer is called ductal carcinoma of the breast or mammary ductal carcinoma. Here, the adjective ductal refers to the appearance of the cancer under the microscope, resembling normal breast ducts.

Benign tumors (which are not cancers) are named using -oma as a suffix with the organ name as the root. For instance, a benign tumor of the smooth muscle of the uterus is called leiomyoma (the common name of this frequent tumor is fibroid). Unfortunately, some cancers also use the -oma suffix, examples being melanoma and seminoma.

Signs and symptoms
Symptoms of cancer metastasis depend on the location of the tumor.

Roughly, cancer symptoms can be divided into three groups:

* Local symptoms: unusual lumps or swelling (tumor), hemorrhage (bleeding), pain and/or ulceration. Compression of surrounding tissues may cause symptoms such as jaundice (yellowing the eyes and skin).
* Symptoms of metastasis (spreading): enlarged lymph nodes, cough and hemoptysis, hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), bone pain, fracture of affected bones and neurological symptoms. Although advanced cancer may cause pain, it is often not the first symptom.
* Systemic symptoms: weight loss, poor appetite, fatigue and cachexia (wasting), excessive sweating (night sweats), anemia and specific paraneoplastic phenomena, i.e. specific conditions that are due to an active cancer, such as thrombosis or hormonal changes.

Every symptom in the above list can be caused by a variety of conditions (a list of which is referred to as the differential diagnosis). Cancer may be a common or uncommon cause of each item.

Causes
Main article: Carcinogenesis

Cancer is a diverse class of diseases which differ widely in their causes and biology. Any organism, even plants, can acquire cancer. Nearly all known cancers arise gradually, as errors build up in the cancer cell and its progeny (see mechanisms section for common types of errors).

Anything which replicates (our cells) will probabilistically suffer from errors (mutations). Unless error correction and prevention is properly carried out, the errors will survive, and might be passed along to daughter cells. Normally, the body safeguards against cancer via numerous methods, such as: apoptosis, helper molecules (some DNA polymerases), possibly senescence, etc. However these error-correction methods often fail in small ways, especially in environments that make errors more likely to arise and propagate. For example, such environments can include the presence of disruptive substances called carcinogens, or periodic injury (physical, heat, etc.), or environments that cells did not evolve to withstand, such as hypoxia[5] (see subsections). Cancer is thus a progressive disease, and these progressive errors slowly accumulate until a cell begins to act contrary to its function in the animal.

The errors which cause cancer are often self-amplifying, eventually compounding (like money) at an exponential rate. For example:

* A mutation in the error-correcting machinery of a cell might cause that cell and its children to accumulate errors more rapidly
* A mutation in signaling (endocrine) machinery of the cell can send error-causing signals to nearby cells
* A mutation might cause cells to become neoplastic, causing them to migrate and disrupt more healthy cells
* A mutation may cause the cell to become immortal (see telomeres), causing them to disrupt healthy cells forever

Thus cancer often explodes in something akin to a chain reaction caused by a few errors, which compound into more severe errors. Errors which produce more errors are effectively the root cause of cancer, and also the reason that cancer is so hard to treat: even if there were 10,000,000,000 cancerous cells and one killed all but 10 of those cells, those cells (and other error-prone precancerous cells) could still self-replicate or send error-causing signals to other cells, starting the process over again. This rebellion-like scenario is an undesirable survival of the fittest, where the driving forces of evolution itself work against the body's design and enforcement of order. In fact, once cancer has begun to develop, this same force continues to drive the progression of cancer towards more invasive stages, and is called clonal evolution.[6]

Research about cancer causes often falls into the following categories:

* Agents (e.g. viruses) and events (e.g. mutations) which cause or facilitate genetic changes in cells destined to become cancer.
* The precise nature of the genetic damage, and the genes which are affected by it.
* The consequences of those genetic changes on the biology of the cell, both in generating the defining properties of a cancer cell, and in facilitating additional genetic events which lead to further progression of the cancer.

Mutation: chemical carcinogens
Further information: Carcinogen

Cancer pathogenesis is traceable back to DNA mutations that impact cell growth and metastasis. Substances that cause DNA mutations are known as mutagens, and mutagens that cause cancers are known as carcinogens. Particular substances have been linked to specific types of cancer. Tobacco smoking is associated with many forms of cancer,[7] and causes 90% of lung cancer.[8] Prolonged exposure to asbestos fibers is associated with mesothelioma.[9]

Many mutagens are also carcinogens, but some carcinogens are not mutagens. Alcohol is an example of a chemical carcinogen that is not a mutagen.[10] Such chemicals may promote cancers through stimulating the rate of cell division. Faster rates of replication leaves less time for repair enzymes to repair damaged DNA during DNA replication, increasing the likelihood of a mutation.
The incidence of lung cancer is highly correlated with smoking. Source:NIH.

Decades of research has demonstrated the link between tobacco use and cancer in the lung, larynx, head, neck, stomach, bladder, kidney, oesophagus and pancreas.[11] Tobacco smoke contains over fifty known carcinogens, including nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.[12] Tobacco is responsible for about one in three of all cancer deaths in the developed world,[7] and about one in five worldwide.[12] Indeed, lung cancer death rates in the United States have mirrored smoking patterns, with increases in smoking followed by dramatic increases in lung cancer death rates and, more recently, decreases in smoking followed by decreases in lung cancer death rates in men. However, the numbers of smokers worldwide is still rising, leading to what some organizations have described as the tobacco epidemic.[13]

Mutation: ionizing radiation

Sources of ionizing radiation, such as radon gas, can cause cancer. Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun can lead to melanoma and other skin malignancies.[14]

Non-ionizing radio frequency radiation from mobile phones and other similar RF sources has also been proposed as a cause of cancer, but there is currently little established evidence of such a link.[15]

Viral or bacterial infection

Some cancers can be caused by infection with pathogens.[16] Many cancers originate from a viral infection; this is especially true in animals such as birds, but also in humans, as viruses are responsible for 15% of human cancers worldwide. The main viruses associated with human cancers are human papillomavirus, hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus, Epstein-Barr virus, and human T-lymphotropic virus. Experimental and epidemiological data imply a causative role for viruses and they appear to be the second most important risk factor for cancer development in humans, exceeded only by tobacco usage.[17] The mode of virally-induced tumors can be divided into two, acutely-transforming or slowly-transforming. In acutely transforming viruses, the virus carries an overactive oncogene called viral-oncogene (v-onc), and the infected cell is transformed as soon as v-onc is expressed. In contrast, in slowly-transforming viruses, the virus genome is inserts near a proto-oncogene in the host genome. The viral promoter or other transcription regulation elements then cause overexpression of that proto-oncogene. This induces uncontrolled cell division. Because the site of insertion is not specific to proto-oncogenes and the chance of insertion near any proto-oncogene is low, slowly-transforming viruses will cause tumors much longer after infection than the acutely-transforming viruses.

Hepatitis viruses, including hepatitis B and hepatitis C, can induce a chronic viral infection that leads to liver cancer in 0.47% of hepatitis B patients per year (especially in Asia, less so in North America), and in 1.4% of hepatitis C carriers per year. Liver cirrhosis, whether from chronic viral hepatitis infection or alcoholism, is associated with the development of liver cancer, and the combination of cirrhosis and viral hepatitis presents the highest risk of liver cancer development. Worldwide, liver cancer is one of the most common, and most deadly, cancers due to a huge burden of viral hepatitis transmission and disease.

Advances in cancer research have made a vaccine designed to prevent cancer available. In 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved a human papilloma virus vaccine, called Gardasil. The vaccine protects against four HPV types, which together cause 70% of cervical cancers and 90% of genital warts. In March 2007, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) officially recommended that females aged 11–12 receive the vaccine, and indicated that females as young as age 9 and as old as age 26 are also candidates for immunization.

In addition to viruses, researchers have noted a connection between bacteria and certain cancers. The most prominent example is the link between chronic infection of the wall of the stomach with Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer.[18][19] Although only a minority of those infected with Helicobacter go on to develop cancer, since this pathogen is quite common it is probably responsible for the majority of these cancers.[20]

Hormonal imbalances

Some hormones can act in a similar manner to non-mutagenic carcinogens in that they may stimulate excessive cell growth. A well-established example is the role of hyperestrogenic states in promoting endometrial cancer.

Immune system dysfunction

HIV is associated with a number of malignancies, including Kaposi's sarcoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and HPV-associated malignancies such as anal cancer and cervical cancer. AIDS-defining illnesses have long included these diagnoses. The increased incidence of malignancies in HIV patients points to the breakdown of immune surveillance as a possible etiology of cancer.[21] Certain other immune deficiency states (e.g. common variable immunodeficiency and IgA deficiency) are also associated with increased risk of malignancy.[22]

Heredity

Most forms of cancer are sporadic, meaning that there is no inherited cause of the cancer. There are, however, a number of recognised syndromes where there is an inherited predisposition to cancer, often due to a defect in a gene that protects against tumor formation. Famous examples are:

* certain inherited mutations in the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 are associated with an elevated risk of breast cancer and ovarian cancer
* tumors of various endocrine organs in multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN types 1, 2a, 2b)
* Li-Fraumeni syndrome (various tumors such as osteosarcoma, breast cancer, soft tissue sarcoma, brain tumors) due to mutations of p53
* Turcot syndrome (brain tumors and colonic polyposis)
* Familial adenomatous polyposis an inherited mutation of the APC gene that leads to early onset of colon carcinoma.
* Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC, also known as Lynch syndrome) can include familial cases of colon cancer, uterine cancer, gastric cancer, and ovarian cancer, without a preponderance of colon polyps.
* Retinoblastoma, when occurring in young children, is due to a hereditary mutation in the retinoblastoma gene.
* Down syndrome patients, who have an extra chromosome 21, are known to develop malignancies such as leukemia and testicular cancer, though the reasons for this difference are not well understood.

Other causes

Excepting the rare transmissions that occur with pregnancies and only a marginal few organ donors, cancer is generally not a transmissible disease. The main reason for this is tissue graft rejection caused by MHC incompatibility.[23] In humans and other vertebrates, the immune system uses MHC antigens to differentiate between "self" and "non-self" cells because these antigens are different from person to person. When non-self antigens are encountered, the immune system reacts against the appropriate cell. Such reactions may protect against tumour cell engraftment by eliminating implanted cells. In the United States, approximately 3,500 pregnant women have a malignancy annually, and transplacental transmission of acute leukaemia, lymphoma, melanoma and carcinoma from mother to fetus has been observed.[23] The development of donor-derived tumors from organ transplants is exceedingly rare. The main cause of organ transplant associated tumors seems to be malignant melanoma, that was undetected at the time of organ harvest[24], though other cases exist[25]. In fact, cancer from one organism will usually grow in another organism of that species, as long as they share the same histocompatibility genes[26], proven using mice; however this would never happen in a real-world setting except as described above.

In non-humans, a few types of cancer have been found to be caused by transmission of the tumor cells themselves. This phenomenon is seen in dogs with Sticker's sarcoma, also known as canine transmissible venereal tumor,[27] as well as Devil facial tumour disease in Tasmanian devils.

Mechanism
Cancers are caused by a series of mutations. Each mutation alters the behavior of the cell somewhat.

Cancer is fundamentally a disease of regulation of tissue growth. In order for a normal cell to transform into a cancer cell, genes which regulate cell growth and differentiation must be altered.[28] Genetic changes can occur at many levels, from gain or loss of entire chromosomes to a mutation affecting a single DNA nucleotide. There are two broad categories of genes which are affected by these changes. Oncogenes may be normal genes which are expressed at inappropriately high levels, or altered genes which have novel properties. In either case, expression of these genes promotes the malignant phenotype of cancer cells. Tumor suppressor genes are genes which inhibit cell division, survival, or other properties of cancer cells. Tumor suppressor genes are often disabled by cancer-promoting genetic changes. Typically, changes in many genes are required to transform a normal cell into a cancer cell.[29]

There is a diverse classification scheme for the various genomic changes which may contribute to the generation of cancer cells. Most of these changes are mutations, or changes in the nucleotide sequence of genomic DNA. Aneuploidy, the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes, is one genomic change which is not a mutation, and may involve either gain or loss of one or more chromosomes through errors in mitosis.

Large-scale mutations involve the deletion or gain of a portion of a chromosome. Genomic amplification occurs when a cell gains many copies (often 20 or more) of a small chromosomal locus, usually containing one or more oncogenes and adjacent genetic material. Translocation occurs when two separate chromosomal regions become abnormally fused, often at a characteristic location. A well-known example of this is the Philadelphia chromosome, or translocation of chromosomes 9 and 22, which occurs in chronic myelogenous leukemia, and results in production of the BCR-abl fusion protein, an oncogenic tyrosine kinase.

Small-scale mutations include point mutations, deletions, and insertions, which may occur in the promoter of a gene and affect its expression, or may occur in the gene's coding sequence and alter the function or stability of its protein product. Disruption of a single gene may also result from integration of genomic material from a DNA virus or retrovirus, and such an event may also result in the expression of viral oncogenes in the affected cell and its descendants.

Epigenetics

Epigenetics is the study of the regulation of gene expression through chemical, non-mutational changes in DNA structure. The theory of epigenetics in cancer pathogenesis is that non-mutational changes to DNA can lead to alterations in gene expression. Normally, oncogenes are silent, for example, because of DNA methylation. Loss of that methylation can induce the aberrant expression of oncogenes, leading to cancer pathogenesis. Known mechanisms of epigenetic change include DNA methylation, and methylation or acetylation of histone proteins bound to chromosomal DNA at specific locations. Classes of medications, known as HDAC inhibitors and DNA methyltransferase inhibitors, can re-regulate the epigenetic signaling in the cancer cell.

Oncogenes

Oncogenes promote cell growth through a variety of ways. Many can produce hormones, a "chemical messenger" between cells which encourage mitosis, the effect of which depends on the signal transduction of the receiving tissue or cells. In other words, when a hormone receptor on a recipient cell is stimulated, the signal is conducted from the surface of the cell to the cell nucleus to effect some change in gene transcription regulation at the nuclear level. Some oncogenes are part of the signal transduction system itself, or the signal receptors in cells and tissues themselves, thus controlling the sensitivity to such hormones. Oncogenes often produce mitogens, or are involved in transcription of DNA in protein synthesis, which creates the proteins and enzymes responsible for producing the products and biochemicals cells use and interact with.

Mutations in proto-oncogenes, which are the normally quiescent counterparts of oncogenes, can modify their expression and function, increasing the amount or activity of the product protein. When this happens, the proto-oncogenes become oncogenes, and this transition upsets the normal balance of cell cycle regulation in the cell, making uncontrolled growth possible. The chance of cancer cannot be reduced by removing proto-oncogenes from the genome, even if this were possible, as they are critical for growth, repair and homeostasis of the organism. It is only when they become mutated that the signals for growth become excessive.

One of the first oncogenes to be defined in cancer research is the ras oncogene. Mutations in the Ras family of proto-oncogenes (comprising H-Ras, N-Ras and K-Ras) are very common, being found in 20% to 30% of all human tumours.[30] Ras was originally identified in the Harvey sarcoma virus genome, and researchers were surprised that not only was this gene present in the human genome but that, when ligated to a stimulating control element, could induce cancers in cell line cultures.[31]

Tumor suppressor genes
Many tumor suppressor genes effect signal transduction pathways which regulate apoptosis, also known as "programmed cell death".

Tumor suppressor genes code for anti-proliferation signals and proteins that suppress mitosis and cell growth. Generally, tumor suppressors are transcription factors that are activated by cellular stress or DNA damage. Often DNA damage will cause the presence of free-floating genetic material as well as other signs, and will trigger enzymes and pathways which lead to the activation of tumor suppressor genes. The functions of such genes is to arrest the progression of the cell cycle in order to carry out DNA repair, preventing mutations from being passed on to daughter cells. The p53 protein, one of the most important studied tumor suppressor genes, is a transcription factor activated by many cellular stressors including hypoxia and ultraviolet radiation damage.

Despite nearly half of all cancers possibly involving alterations in p53, its tumor suppressor function is poorly understood. p53 clearly has two functions: one a nuclear role as a transcription factor, and the other a cytoplasmic role in regulating the cell cycle, cell division, and apoptosis.

The Warburg hypothesis is the preferential use of glycolysis for energy to sustain cancer growth. p53 has been shown to regulate the shift from the respiratory to the glycolytic pathway.[32]

However, a mutation can damage the tumor suppressor gene itself, or the signal pathway which activates it, "switching it off". The invariable consequence of this is that DNA repair is hindered or inhibited: DNA damage accumulates without repair, inevitably leading to cancer.

Mutations of tumor suppressor genes that occur in germline cells are passed along to offspring, and increase the likelihood for cancer diagnoses in subsequent generations. Members of these families have increased incidence and decreased latency of multiple tumors. The tumor types are typical for each type of tumor suppressor gene mutation, with some mutations causing particular cancers, and other mutations causing others. The mode of inheritance of mutant tumor suppressors is that an affected member inherits a defective copy from one parent, and a normal copy from the other. For instance, individuals who inherit one mutant p53 allele (and are therefore heterozygous for mutated p53) can develop melanomas and pancreatic cancer, known as Li-Fraumeni syndrome. Other inherited tumor suppressor gene syndromes include Rb mutations, linked to retinoblastoma, and APC gene mutations, linked to adenopolyposis colon cancer. Adenopolyposis colon cancer is associated with thousands of polyps in colon while young, leading to colon cancer at a relatively early age. Finally, inherited mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 lead to early onset of breast cancer.

Development of cancer was proposed in 1971 to depend on at least two mutational events. In what became known as the Knudson two-hit hypothesis, an inherited, germ-line mutation in a tumor suppressor gene would only cause cancer if another mutation event occurred later in the organism's life, inactivating the other allele of that tumor suppressor gene.[33]

Usually, oncogenes are dominant, as they contain gain-of-function mutations, while mutated tumor suppressors are recessive, as they contain loss-of-function mutations. Each cell has two copies of the same gene, one from each parent, and under most cases gain of function mutations in just one copy of a particular proto-oncogene is enough to make that gene a true oncogene. On the other hand, loss of function mutations need to happen in both copies of a tumor suppressor gene to render that gene completely non-functional. However, cases exist in which one mutated copy of a tumor suppressor gene can render the other, wild-type copy non-functional. This phenomenon is called the dominant negative effect and is observed in many p53 mutations.

Knudson’s two hit model has recently been challenged by several investigators. Inactivation of one allele of some tumor suppressor genes is sufficient to cause tumors. This phenomenon is called haploinsufficiency and has been demonstrated by a number of experimental approaches. Tumors caused by haploinsufficiency usually have a later age of onset when compared with those by a two hit process.[34]

Often, the multiple genetic changes which result in cancer may take many years to accumulate. During this time, the biological behavior of the pre-malignant cells slowly change from the properties of normal cells to cancer-like properties. Pre-malignant tissue can have a distinctive appearance under the microscope. Among the distinguishing traits are an increased number of dividing cells, variation in nuclear size and shape, variation in cell size and shape, loss of specialized cell features, and loss of normal tissue organization. Dysplasia is an abnormal type of excessive cell proliferation characterized by loss of normal tissue arrangement and cell structure in pre-malignant cells. These early neoplastic changes must be distinguished from hyperplasia, a reversible increase in cell division caused by an external stimulus, such as a hormonal imbalance or chronic irritation.

The most severe cases of dysplasia are referred to as "carcinoma in situ." In Latin, the term "in situ" means "in place", so carcinoma in situ refers to an uncontrolled growth of cells that remains in the original location and has not shown invasion into other tissues. Nevertheless, carcinoma in situ may develop into an invasive malignancy and is usually removed surgically, if possible.

Clonal evolution
Main article: Somatic evolution in cancer

Just like a population of animals undergoes evolution, an unchecked population of cells also can undergo evolution. This undesirable process is called somatic evolution, and is how cancer arises and becomes more malignant. [35]

Most changes in cellular metabolism that allow cells to grow in a disorderly fashion lead to cell death. However once cancer begins, cancer cells undergo a process of natural selection: the few cells with new genetic changes that enhance their survival or reproduction continue to multiply, and soon come to dominate the growing tumor, as cells with less favorable genetic change are out-competed.[36] This is exactly how pathogens such as MRSA can become antibiotic-resistant (or how HIV can become drug-resistant), and the same reason why crop blights and pests can become pesticide-resistant. This evolution is why cancer recurrences will have cells which have acquired cancer-drug resistance (or in some cases, resistance to radiation from radiotherapy).

Biological properties of cancer cells
When normal cells are damaged beyond repair, they are eliminated by apoptosis (A). Cancer cells avoid apoptosis and continue to multiply in an unregulated manner (B).

In a 2000 article by Hanahan and Weinberg, the biological properties of malignant tumor cells were summarized as follows:[37]

* Acquisition of self-sufficiency in growth signals, leading to unchecked growth.
* Loss of sensitivity to anti-growth signals, also leading to unchecked growth.
* Loss of capacity for apoptosis, in order to allow growth despite genetic errors and external anti-growth signals.
* Loss of capacity for senescence, leading to limitless replicative potential (immortality)
* Acquisition of sustained angiogenesis, allowing the tumor to grow beyond the limitations of passive nutrient diffusion.
* Acquisition of ability to invade neighbouring tissues, the defining property of invasive carcinoma.
* Acquisition of ability to build metastases at distant sites, the classical property of malignant tumors (carcinomas or others).

The completion of these multiple steps would be a very rare event without :

* Loss of capacity to repair genetic errors, leading to an increased mutation rate (genomic instability), thus accelerating all the other changes.

These biological changes are classical in carcinomas; other malignant tumor may not need all to achieve them all. For example, tissue invasion and displacement to distant sites are normal properties of leukocytes; these steps are not needed in the development of leukemia. The different steps do not necessarily represent individual mutations. For example, inactivation of a single gene, coding for the p53 protein, will cause genomic instability, evasion of apoptosis and increased angiogenesis. Not all the cancer cells are dividing. Rather, a subset of the cells in a tumor, called cancer stem cells, replicate themselves and generate differentiated cells.[38]

Prevention

Cancer prevention is defined as active measures to decrease the incidence of cancer. This can be accomplished by avoiding carcinogens or altering their metabolism, pursuing a lifestyle or diet that modifies cancer-causing factors and/or medical intervention (chemoprevention, treatment of pre-malignant lesions). The epidemiological concept of "prevention" is usually defined as either primary prevention, for people who have not been diagnosed with a particular disease, or secondary prevention, aimed at reducing recurrence or complications of a previously diagnosed illness.

Modifiable ("lifestyle") risk factors
See also: Alcohol and cancer

The vast majority of cancer risk factors are environmental or lifestyle-related in nature, leading to the claim that cancer is a largely preventable disease.[39] Examples of modifiable cancer risk factors include alcohol consumption (associated with increased risk of oral, esophageal, breast, and other cancers), smoking (although 20% of women with lung cancer have never smoked, versus 10% of men[40]), physical inactivity (associated with increased risk of colon, breast, and possibly other cancers), and being overweight / obese (associated with colon, breast, endometrial, and possibly other cancers). Based on epidemiologic evidence, it is now thought that avoiding excessive alcohol consumption may contribute to reductions in risk of certain cancers; however, compared with tobacco exposure, the magnitude of effect is modest or small and the strength of evidence is often weaker. Other lifestyle and environmental factors known to affect cancer risk (either beneficially or detrimentally) include certain sexually transmitted diseases (such as those conveyed by the human papillomavirus), the use of exogenous hormones, exposure to ionizing radiation and ultraviolet radiation, and certain occupational and chemical exposures.

Every year, at least 200,000 people die worldwide from cancer related to their workplace.[41] Millions of workers run the risk of developing cancers such as lung cancer and mesothelioma from inhaling asbestos fibers and tobacco smoke, or leukemia from exposure to benzene at their workplaces.[41] Currently, most cancer deaths caused by occupational risk factors occur in the developed world.[41] It is estimated that approximately 20,000 cancer deaths and 40,000 new cases of cancer each year in the U.S. are attributable to occupation.[42]

Diet
Main article: Diet and cancer

The consensus on diet and cancer is that obesity increases the risk of developing cancer. Particular dietary practices often explain differences in cancer incidence in different countries (e.g. gastric cancer is more common in Japan, while colon cancer is more common in the United States. In this example the preceding consideration of Haplogroups are excluded). Studies have shown that immigrants develop the risk of their new country, often within one generation, suggesting a substantial link between diet and cancer.[43] Whether reducing obesity in a population also reduces cancer incidence is unknown.

Despite frequent reports of particular substances (including foods) having a beneficial or detrimental effect on cancer risk, few of these have an established link to cancer. These reports are often based on studies in cultured cell media or animals. Public health recommendations cannot be made on the basis of these studies until they have been validated in an observational (or occasionally a prospective interventional) trial in humans.
An invasive colorectal carcinoma (top center) in a colectomy specimen.

Proposed dietary interventions for primary cancer risk reduction generally gain support from epidemiological association studies. Examples of such studies include reports that reduced meat consumption is associated with decreased risk of colon cancer,[44] and reports that consumption of coffee is associated with a reduced risk of liver cancer.[45] Studies have linked consumption of grilled meat to an increased risk of stomach cancer,[46] colon cancer,[47] breast cancer,[48] and pancreatic cancer,[49] a phenomenon which could be due to the presence of carcinogens such as benzopyrene in foods cooked at high temperatures.

A 2005 secondary prevention study showed that consumption of a plant-based diet and lifestyle changes resulted in a reduction in cancer markers in a group of men with prostate cancer who were using no conventional treatments at the time.[50] These results were amplified by a 2006 study in which over 2,400 women were studied, half randomly assigned to a normal diet, the other half assigned to a diet containing less than 20% calories from fat. The women on the low fat diet were found to have a markedly lower risk of breast cancer recurrence, in the interim report of December, 2006.[51]

Recent studies have also demonstrated potential links between some forms of cancer and high consumption of refined sugars and other simple carbohydrates.[52][53][54][55][56] Although the degree of correlation and the degree of causality is still debated,[57][58][59] some organizations have in fact begun to recommend reducing intake of refined sugars and starches as part of their cancer prevention regimens.[60][61][62]

In November 2007, the American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR), in conjunction with the World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), published Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective, "the most current and comprehensive analysis of the literature on diet, physical activity and cancer".[63] The WCRF/AICR Expert Report lists 10 recommendations that people can follow to help reduce their risk of developing cancer, including the following dietary guidelines: (1) reducing intake of foods and drinks that promote weight gain, namely energy-dense foods and sugary drinks, (2) eating mostly foods of plant origin, (3) limiting intake of red meat and avoiding processed meat, (4) limiting consumption of alcoholic beverages, and (5) reducing intake of salt and avoiding mouldy cereals (grains) or pulses (legumes).[64][65]

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Vitamins

The idea that cancer can be prevented through vitamin supplementation stems from early observations correlating human disease with vitamin deficiency, such as pernicious anemia with vitamin B12 deficiency, and scurvy with Vitamin C deficiency. This has largely not been proven to be the case with cancer, and vitamin supplementation is largely not proving effective in preventing cancer. The cancer-fighting components of food are also proving to be more numerous and varied than previously understood, so patients are increasingly being advised to consume fresh, unprocessed fruits and vegetables for maximal health benefits.[66]

Epidemiological studies have shown that low vitamin D status is correlated to increased cancer risk.[67][68] However, the results of such studies need to be treated with caution, as they cannot show whether a correlation between two factors means that one causes the other (i.e. correlation does not imply causation).[69] The possibility that Vitamin D might protect against cancer has been contrasted with the risk of malignancy from sun exposure. Since exposure to the sun enhances natural human production of vitamin D, some cancer researchers have argued that the potential deleterious malignant effects of sun exposure are far outweighed by the cancer-preventing effects of extra vitamin D synthesis in sun-exposed skin. In 2002, Dr. William B. Grant claimed that 23,800 premature cancer deaths occur in the US annually due to insufficient UVB exposure (apparently via vitamin D deficiency).[70] This is higher than 8,800 deaths occurred from melanoma or squamous cell carcinoma, so the overall effect of sun exposure might be beneficial. Another research group[71][72] estimates that 50,000–63,000 individuals in the United States and 19,000 - 25,000 in the UK die prematurely from cancer annually due to insufficient vitamin D.

The case of beta-carotene provides an example of the importance of randomized clinical trials. Epidemiologists studying both diet and serum levels observed that high levels of beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A, were associated with a protective effect, reducing the risk of cancer. This effect was particularly strong in lung cancer. This hypothesis led to a series of large randomized clinical trials conducted in both Finland and the United States (CARET study) during the 1980s and 1990s. This study provided about 80,000 smokers or former smokers with daily supplements of beta-carotene or placebos. Contrary to expectation, these tests found no benefit of beta-carotene supplementation in reducing lung cancer incidence and mortality. In fact, the risk of lung cancer was slightly, but not significantly, increased by beta-carotene, leading to an early termination of the study.[73]

Results reported in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in 2007 indicate that folic acid supplementation is not effective in preventing colon cancer, and folate consumers may be more likely to form colon polyps.[74]

Chemoprevention

The concept that medications could be used to prevent cancer is an attractive one, and many high-quality clinical trials support the use of such chemoprevention in defined circumstances.

Daily use of tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM), typically for 5 years, has been demonstrated to reduce the risk of developing breast cancer in high-risk women by about 50%. A recent study reported that the selective estrogen receptor modulator raloxifene has similar benefits to tamoxifen in preventing breast cancer in high-risk women, with a more favorable side effect profile.[75]

Raloxifene is a SERM like tamoxifen; it has been shown (in the STAR trial) to reduce the risk of breast cancer in high-risk women equally as well as tamoxifen. In this trial, which studied almost 20,000 women, raloxifene had fewer side effects than tamoxifen, though it did permit more DCIS to form.[75]

Finasteride, a 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor, has been shown to lower the risk of prostate cancer, though it seems to mostly prevent low-grade tumors.[76] The effect of COX-2 inhibitors such as rofecoxib and celecoxib upon the risk of colon polyps have been studied in familial adenomatous polyposis patients[77] and in the general population.[78][79] In both groups, there were significant reductions in colon polyp incidence, but this came at the price of increased cardiovascular toxicity.

Genetic testing

Genetic testing for high-risk individuals is already available for certain cancer-related genetic mutations. Carriers of genetic mutations that increase risk for cancer incidence can undergo enhanced surveillance, chemoprevention, or risk-reducing surgery. Early identification of inherited genetic risk for cancer, along with cancer-preventing interventions such as surgery or enhanced surveillance, can be lifesaving for high-risk individuals.

Gene Cancer types Availability
BRCA1, BRCA2 Breast, ovarian, pancreatic Commercially available for clinical specimens
MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, PMS1, PMS2 Colon, uterine, small bowel, stomach, urinary tract Commercially available for clinical specimens

Vaccination

Prophylactic vaccines have been developed to prevent infection by oncogenic infectious agents such as viruses, and therapeutic vaccines are in development to stimulate an immune response against cancer-specific epitopes.[80]

As reported above, a preventive human papillomavirus vaccine exists that targets certain sexually transmitted strains of human papillomavirus that are associated with the development of cervical cancer and genital warts. The only two HPV vaccines on the market as of October 2007 are Gardasil and Cervarix.[80] There is also a hepatitis B vaccine, which prevents infection with the hepatitis B virus, an infectious agent that can cause liver cancer.[80] A canine melanoma vaccine has also been developed.[81][82]

Screening
Main article: Cancer screening

This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2009)

Cancer screening is an attempt to detect unsuspected cancers in an asymptomatic population. Screening tests suitable for large numbers of healthy people must be relatively affordable, safe, noninvasive procedures with acceptably low rates of false positive results. If signs of cancer are detected, more definitive and invasive follow up tests are performed to confirm the diagnosis.

Screening for cancer can lead to earlier diagnosis in specific cases. Early diagnosis may lead to extended life, but may also falsely prolong the lead time to death through lead time bias or length time bias.

A number of different screening tests have been developed for different malignancies. Breast cancer screening can be done by breast self-examination, though this approach was discredited by a 2005 study in over 300,000 Chinese women. Screening for breast cancer with mammograms has been shown to reduce the average stage of diagnosis of breast cancer in a population. Stage of diagnosis in a country has been shown to decrease within ten years of introduction of mammographic screening programs. Colorectal cancer can be detected through fecal occult blood testing and colonoscopy, which reduces both colon cancer incidence and mortality, presumably through the detection and removal of pre-malignant polyps. Similarly, cervical cytology testing (using the Pap smear) leads to the identification and excision of precancerous lesions. Over time, such testing has been followed by a dramatic reduction of cervical cancer incidence and mortality. Testicular self-examination is recommended for men beginning at the age of 15 years to detect testicular cancer. Prostate cancer can be screened using a digital rectal exam along with prostate specific antigen (PSA) blood testing, though some authorities (such as the US Preventive Services Task Force) recommend against routinely screening all men.

Screening for cancer is controversial in cases when it is not yet known if the test actually saves lives. The controversy arises when it is not clear if the benefits of screening outweigh the risks of follow-up diagnostic tests and cancer treatments. For example: when screening for prostate cancer, the PSA test may detect small cancers that would never become life threatening, but once detected will lead to treatment. This situation, called overdiagnosis, puts men at risk for complications from unnecessary treatment such as surgery or radiation. Follow up procedures used to diagnose prostate cancer (prostate biopsy) may cause side effects, including bleeding and infection. Prostate cancer treatment may cause incontinence (inability to control urine flow) and erectile dysfunction (erections inadequate for intercourse). Similarly, for breast cancer, there have recently been criticisms that breast screening programs in some countries cause more problems than they solve. This is because screening of women in the general population will result in a large number of women with false positive results which require extensive follow-up investigations to exclude cancer, leading to having a high number-to-treat (or number-to-screen) to prevent or catch a single case of breast cancer early.

Cervical cancer screening via the Pap smear has the best cost-benefit profile of all the forms of cancer screening from a public health perspective as, being largely caused by a virus, it has clear risk factors (sexual contact), and the natural progression of cervical cancer is that it normally spreads slowly over a number of years therefore giving more time for the screening program to catch it early. Moreover, the test itself is easy to perform and relatively cheap.

For these reasons, it is important that the benefits and risks of diagnostic procedures and treatment be taken into account when considering whether to undertake cancer screening.

Use of medical imaging to search for cancer in people without clear symptoms is similarly marred with problems. There is a significant risk of detection of what has been recently called an incidentaloma - a benign lesion that may be interpreted as a malignancy and be subjected to potentially dangerous investigations. Recent studies of CT scan-based screening for lung cancer in smokers have had equivocal results, and systematic screening is not recommended as of July 2007. Randomized clinical trials of plain-film chest X-rays to screen for lung cancer in smokers have shown no benefit for this approach.

Canine cancer detection has shown promise, but is still in the early stages of research.

Diagnosis

Most cancers are initially recognized either because signs or symptoms appear or through screening. Neither of these lead to a definitive diagnosis, which usually requires the opinion of a pathologist, a type of physician (medical doctor) who specializes in the diagnosis of cancer and other diseases.

Investigation
Chest x-ray showing lung cancer in the left lung.

People with suspected cancer are investigated with medical tests. These commonly include blood tests, X-rays, CT scans and endoscopy.

Biopsy

A cancer may be suspected for a variety of reasons, but the definitive diagnosis of most malignancies must be confirmed by histological examination of the cancerous cells by a pathologist. Tissue can be obtained from a biopsy or surgery. Many biopsies (such as those of the skin, breast or liver) can be done in a doctor's office. Biopsies of other organs are performed under anesthesia and require surgery in an operating room.

The tissue diagnosis given by the pathologist indicates the type of cell that is proliferating, its histological grade, genetic abnormalities, and other features of the tumor. Together, this information is useful to evaluate the prognosis of the patient and to choose the best treatment. Cytogenetics and immunohistochemistry are other types of testing that the pathologist may perform on the tissue specimen. These tests may provide information about the molecular changes (such as mutations, fusion genes, and numerical chromosome changes) that has happened in the cancer cells, and may thus also indicate the future behavior of the cancer (prognosis) and best treatment.

Treatment

It has been suggested that this section be split into a new article entitled Cancer treatment. (Discuss)

Cancer can be treated by surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, monoclonal antibody therapy or other methods. The choice of therapy depends upon the location and grade of the tumor and the stage of the disease, as well as the general state of the patient (performance status). A number of experimental cancer treatments are also under development.

Complete removal of the cancer without damage to the rest of the body is the goal of treatment. Sometimes this can be accomplished by surgery, but the propensity of cancers to invade adjacent tissue or to spread to distant sites by microscopic metastasis often limits its effectiveness. The effectiveness of chemotherapy is often limited by toxicity to other tissues in the body. Radiation can also cause damage to normal tissue.

Because "cancer" refers to a class of diseases,[83][84] it is unlikely that there will ever be a single "cure for cancer" any more than there will be a single treatment for all infectious diseases.[85] Angiogenesis inhibitors were once thought to have potential as a "silver bullet" treatment applicable to many types of cancer, but this has not been the case in practice.[86]

Surgery

In theory, non-hematological cancers can be cured if entirely removed by surgery,[citation needed] but this is not always possible. When the cancer has metastasized to other sites in the body prior to surgery, complete surgical excision is usually impossible. In the Halstedian model of cancer progression, tumors grow locally, then spread to the lymph nodes, then to the rest of the body. This has given rise to the popularity of local-only treatments such as surgery for small cancers. Even small localized tumors are increasingly recognized as possessing metastatic potential.

Examples of surgical procedures for cancer include mastectomy for breast cancer and prostatectomy for prostate cancer. The goal of the surgery can be either the removal of only the tumor, or the entire organ. A single cancer cell is invisible to the naked eye but can regrow into a new tumor, a process called recurrence. For this reason, the pathologist will examine the surgical specimen to determine if a margin of healthy tissue is present, thus decreasing the chance that microscopic cancer cells are left in the patient.

In addition to removal of the primary tumor, surgery is often necessary for staging, e.g. determining the extent of the disease and whether it has metastasized to regional lymph nodes. Staging is a major determinant of prognosis and of the need for adjuvant therapy.

Occasionally, surgery is necessary to control symptoms, such as spinal cord compression or bowel obstruction. This is referred to as palliative treatment.

Radiation therapy
Main article: Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy, X-ray therapy, or irradiation) is the use of ionizing radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation therapy can be administered externally via external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) or internally via brachytherapy. The effects of radiation therapy are localised and confined to the region being treated. Radiation therapy injures or destroys cells in the area being treated (the "target tissue") by damaging their genetic material, making it impossible for these cells to continue to grow and divide. Although radiation damages both cancer cells and normal cells, most normal cells can recover from the effects of radiation and function properly. The goal of radiation therapy is to damage as many cancer cells as possible, while limiting harm to nearby healthy tissue. Hence, it is given in many fractions, allowing healthy tissue to recover between fractions.

Radiation therapy may be used to treat almost every type of solid tumor, including cancers of the brain, breast, cervix, larynx, lung, pancreas, prostate, skin, stomach, uterus, or soft tissue sarcomas. Radiation is also used to treat leukemia and lymphoma. Radiation dose to each site depends on a number of factors, including the radiosensitivity of each cancer type and whether there are tissues and organs nearby that may be damaged by radiation. Thus, as with every form of treatment, radiation therapy is not without its side effects.

Chemotherapy
Main article: Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with drugs ("anticancer drugs") that can destroy cancer cells. In current usage, the term "chemotherapy" usually refers to cytotoxic drugs which affect rapidly dividing cells in general, in contrast with targeted therapy (see below). Chemotherapy drugs interfere with cell division in various possible ways, e.g. with the duplication of DNA or the separation of newly formed chromosomes. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific to cancer cells, although some degree of specificity may come from the inability of many cancer cells to repair DNA damage, while normal cells generally can. Hence, chemotherapy has the potential to harm healthy tissue, especially those tissues that have a high replacement rate (e.g. intestinal lining). These cells usually repair themselves after chemotherapy.

Because some drugs work better together than alone, two or more drugs are often given at the same time. This is called "combination chemotherapy"; most chemotherapy regimens are given in a combination.[87]

The treatment of some leukaemias and lymphomas requires the use of high-dose chemotherapy, and total body irradiation (TBI). This treatment ablates the bone marrow, and hence the body's ability to recover and repopulate the blood. For this reason, bone marrow, or peripheral blood stem cell harvesting is carried out before the ablative part of the therapy, to enable "rescue" after the treatment has been given. This is known as autologous stem cell transplantation. Alternatively, hematopoietic stem cells may be transplanted from a matched unrelated donor (MUD).

Targeted therapies
Main article: Targeted therapy

Targeted therapy, which first became available in the late 1990s, has had a significant impact in the treatment of some types of cancer, and is currently a very active research area. This constitutes the use of agents specific for the deregulated proteins of cancer cells. Small molecule targeted therapy drugs are generally inhibitors of enzymatic domains on mutated, overexpressed, or otherwise critical proteins within the cancer cell. Prominent examples are the tyrosine kinase inhibitors imatinib (Gleevec/Glivec) and gefitinib (Iressa).

Monoclonal antibody therapy is another strategy in which the therapeutic agent is an antibody which specifically binds to a protein on the surface of the cancer cells. Examples include the anti-HER2/neu antibody trastuzumab (Herceptin) used in breast cancer, and the anti-CD20 antibody rituximab, used in a variety of B-cell malignancies.

Targeted therapy can also involve small peptides as "homing devices" which can bind to cell surface receptors or affected extracellular matrix surrounding the tumor. Radionuclides which are attached to these peptides (e.g. RGDs) eventually kill the cancer cell if the nuclide decays in the vicinity of the cell. Especially oligo- or multimers of these binding motifs are of great interest, since this can lead to enhanced tumor specificity and avidity.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a ternary treatment for cancer involving a photosensitizer, tissue oxygen, and light (often using lasers). PDT can be used as treatment for basal cell carcinoma (BCC) or lung cancer; PDT can also be useful in removing traces of malignant tissue after surgical removal of large tumors.[88]

mmunotherapy
A renal cell carcinoma (lower left) in a kidney specimen.
Main article: Cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy refers to a diverse set of therapeutic strategies designed to induce the patient's own immune system to fight the tumor. Contemporary methods for generating an immune response against tumours include intravesical BCG immunotherapy for superficial bladder cancer, and use of interferons and other cytokines to induce an immune response in renal cell carcinoma and melanoma patients. Vaccines to generate specific immune responses are the subject of intensive research for a number of tumours, notably malignant melanoma and renal cell carcinoma. Sipuleucel-T is a vaccine-like strategy in late clinical trials for prostate cancer in which dendritic cells from the patient are loaded with prostatic acid phosphatase peptides to induce a specific immune response against prostate-derived cells.

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation ("bone marrow transplantation" from a genetically non-identical donor) can be considered a form of immunotherapy, since the donor's immune cells will often attack the tumor in a phenomenon known as graft-versus-tumor effect. For this reason, allogeneic HSCT leads to a higher cure rate than autologous transplantation for several cancer types, although the side effects are also more severe.

Hormonal therapy
Main article: Hormonal therapy (oncology)

The growth of some cancers can be inhibited by providing or blocking certain hormones. Common examples of hormone-sensitive tumors include certain types of breast and prostate cancers. Removing or blocking estrogen or testosterone is often an important additional treatment. In certain cancers, administration of hormone agonists, such as progestogens may be therapeutically beneficial.

Angiogenesis inhibitors
Main article: Angiogenesis inhibitor

Angiogenesis inhibitors prevent the extensive growth of blood vessels (angiogenesis) that tumors require to survive. Some, such as bevacizumab, have been approved and are in clinical use. One of the main problems with anti-angiogenesis drugs is that many factors stimulate blood vessel growth in cells normal or cancerous. Anti-angiogenesis drugs only target one factor, so the other factors continue to stimulate blood vessel growth. Other problems include route of administration, maintenance of stability and activity and targeting at the tumor vasculature.[89]

Symptom control

Although the control of the symptoms of cancer is not typically thought of as a treatment directed at the cancer, it is an important determinant of the quality of life of cancer patients, and plays an important role in the decision whether the patient is able to undergo other treatments. Although doctors generally have the therapeutic skills to reduce pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hemorrhage and other common problems in cancer patients, the multidisciplinary specialty of palliative care has arisen specifically in response to the symptom control needs of this group of patients. This is an especially important aspect of care for those patients whose disease is not a good candidate for other forms of treatment. As most treatments for cancer involve significantly unpleasant side effects, a patient with little realistic hope of a cure may choose to seek palliative care only, eschewing more radical therapies in exchange for a prolonged period of normal living.

Pain medication, such as morphine and oxycodone, and antiemetics, drugs to suppress nausea and vomiting, are very commonly used in patients with cancer-related symptoms. Improved antiemetics such as ondansetron and analogues, as well as aprepitant have made aggressive treatments much more feasible in cancer patients.

Chronic pain due to cancer is almost always associated with continuing tissue damage due to the disease process or the treatment (i.e. surgery, radiation, chemotherapy). Although there is always a role for environmental factors and affective disturbances in the genesis of pain behaviors, these are not usually the predominant etiologic factors in patients with cancer pain. Furthermore, many patients with severe pain associated with cancer are nearing the end of their lives and palliative therapies are required. Issues such as social stigma of using opioids, work and functional status, and health care consumption are not likely to be important in the overall case management. Hence, the typical strategy for cancer pain management is to get the patient as comfortable as possible using opioids and other medications, surgery, and physical measures. Doctors have been reluctant to prescribe narcotics for pain in terminal cancer patients, for fear of contributing to addiction or suppressing respiratory function. The palliative care movement, a more recent offshoot of the hospice movement, has engendered more widespread support for preemptive pain treatment for cancer patients.

Fatigue is a very common problem for cancer patients, and has only recently become important enough for oncologists to suggest treatment, even though it plays a significant role in many patients' quality of life.

Treatment trials
Main article: Experimental cancer treatment

Clinical trials, also called research studies, test new treatments in people with cancer. The goal of this research is to find better ways to treat cancer and help cancer patients. Clinical trials test many types of treatment such as new drugs, new approaches to surgery or radiation therapy, new combinations of treatments, or new methods such as gene therapy.

A clinical trial is one of the final stages of a long and careful cancer research process. The search for new treatments begins in the laboratory, where scientists first develop and test new ideas. If an approach seems promising, the next step may be testing a treatment in animals to see how it affects cancer in a living being and whether it has harmful effects. Of course, treatments that work well in the lab or in animals do not always work well in people. Studies are done with cancer patients to find out whether promising treatments are safe and effective.

Patients who take part may be helped personally by the treatment they receive. They get up-to-date care from cancer experts, and they receive either a new treatment being tested or the best available standard treatment for their cancer. At the same time, new treatments also may have unknown risks, but if a new treatment proves effective or more effective than standard treatment, study patients who receive it may be among the first to benefit. There is no guarantee that a new treatment being tested or a standard treatment will produce good results. In children with cancer, a survey of trials found that those enrolled in trials were on average not more likely to do better or worse than those on standard treatment; this confirms that success or failure of an experimental treatment cannot be predicted.[90]

Complementary and alternative
Main article: Unproven cancer therapy

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) treatments are the diverse group of medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not part of conventional medicine.[91] "Complementary medicine" refers to methods and substances used along with conventional medicine, while "alternative medicine" refers to compounds used instead of conventional medicine.[92] CAM use is common among people with cancer; a 2000 study found that 69% of cancer patients had used at least one CAM therapy as part of their cancer treatment.[93] Most complementary and alternative medicines for cancer have not been rigorously studied or tested. Some alternative treatments which have been investigated and shown to be ineffective continue to be marketed and promoted.[94]

In pregnancy

The incidence of concurrent cancer during pregnancy has risen due to the increasing age of pregnant mothers[95] and due to the incidental discovery of maternal tumors during prenatal ultrasound examinations.

Cancer treatment needs to be selected to do least harm to both the woman and her embryo/fetus. In some cases a therapeutic abortion may be recommended.

Radiation therapy is generally out of the question, and chemotherapy always poses the risk of miscarriage and congenital malformations.[95] Little is known about the effects of medications on the child.

Even if a drug has been tested as not crossing the placenta to reach the child, some cancer forms can harm the placenta and make the drug pass over it anyway.[95] Some forms of skin cancer may even metastasize to the child's body.[95]

Diagnosis is also made more difficult, since computed tomography is infeasible because of its high radiation dose. Still, magnetic resonance imaging works normally.[95] However, contrast media cannot be used, since they cross the placenta.[95]

As a consequence of the difficulties to properly diagnose and treat cancer during pregnancy, the alternative methods are either to perform a Cesarean section when the child is viable in order to begin a more aggressive cancer treatment, or, if the cancer is malignant enough that the mother is unlikely to be able to wait that long, to perform an abortion in order to treat the cancer.[95]

In utero

Fetal tumors are sometimes diagnosed while still in utero. Teratoma is the most common type of fetal tumor, and usually is benign.

Ultrasound energy

Ultrasound energy is being studied as a form of therapy.

Prognosis

Cancer has a reputation for being a deadly disease. While this certainly applies to certain particular types, the truths behind the historical connotations of cancer are increasingly being overturned by advances in medical care. Some types of cancer have a prognosis that is substantially better than nonmalignant diseases such as heart failure and stroke.

Progressive and disseminated malignant disease has a substantial impact on a cancer patient's quality of life, and many cancer treatments (such as chemotherapy) may have severe side-effects. In the advanced stages of cancer, many patients need extensive care, affecting family members and friends. Palliative care solutions may include permanent or "respite" hospice nursing.

Emotional impact

Many local organizations offer a variety of practical and support services to people with cancer. Support can take the form of support groups, counseling, advice, financial assistance, transportation to and from treatment, films or information about cancer. Neighborhood organizations, local health care providers, or area hospitals may have resources or services available.

Counseling can provide emotional support to cancer patients and help them better understand their illness. Different types of counseling include individual, group, family, peer counseling, bereavement, patient-to-patient, and sexuality.

Many governmental and charitable organizations have been established to help patients cope with cancer. These organizations are often involved in cancer prevention, cancer treatment, and cancer research.

Epidemiology
Main article: Epidemiology of cancer

Cancer is responsible for about 25% of all deaths in the U.S., and is a major public health problem in many parts of the world. In the U.S., lung cancer causes about 30% of cancer deaths but only about 15% of new cancer cases; the most commonly occurring cancer in men is prostate cancer (about 25% of new cases) and in women is breast cancer (also about 25%). Cancer can also occur in young children and adolescents, but it is rare (about 150 cases per million in the U.S.), with leukemia being the most common.[96] In the first year of life the incidence is about 230 cases per million in the U.S., with the most common being neuroblastoma.[97]

Over a third of cancer deaths worldwide are due to potentially modifiable risk factors, which are headed by tobacco smoking, alcohol use, and diets low in fruit and vegetables. In developed countries overweight and obesity is also a leading cause of cancer, and in low-and-middle-income countries sexual transmission of human papillomavirus is a leading risk factor for cervical cancer.[39]

History
Typical macroscopic appearance of cancer. This invasive ductal carcinoma of the breast (pale area at the center) shows an oval tumor surrounded by spikes of whitish scar tissue in the surrounding yellow fatty tissue. The silhouette vaguely resembles a crab.

Today, the Greek term carcinoma is the medical term for a malignant tumor derived from epithelial cells. It is Celsus who translated carcinos into the Latin cancer, also meaning crab. Galen used "oncos" to describe all tumours, the root for the modern word oncology.[98]

Hippocrates described several kinds of cancers. He called benign tumours oncos, Greek for swelling, and malignant tumours carcinos, Greek for crab or crayfish. This name comes from the appearance of the cut surface of a solid malignant tumour, with "the veins stretched on all sides as the animal the crab has its feet, whence it derives its name"[99] (see picture). He later added the suffix -oma, Greek for swelling, giving the name carcinoma. Since it was against Greek tradition to open the body, Hippocrates only described and made drawings of outwardly visible tumors on the skin, nose, and breasts. Treatment was based on the humor theory of four bodily fluids (black and yellow bile, blood, and phlegm). According to the patient's humor, treatment consisted of diet, blood-letting, and/or laxatives. Through the centuries it was discovered that cancer could occur anywhere in the body, but humor-theory based treatment remained popular until the 19th century with the discovery of cells.

Our oldest description and surgical treatment of cancer was discovered in Egypt and dates back to approximately 1600 B.C. The Papyrus describes 8 cases of ulcers of the breast that were treated by cauterization, with a tool called "the fire drill." The writing says about the disease, "There is no treatment."[100]

Another very early surgical treatment for cancer was described in the 1020s by Avicenna (Ibn Sina) in The Canon of Medicine. He stated that the excision should be radical and that all diseased tissue should be removed, which included the use of amputation or the removal of veins running in the direction of the tumor. He also recommended the use of cauterization for the area being treated if necessary.[101]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, it became more acceptable for doctors to dissect bodies to discover the cause of death. The German professor Wilhelm Fabry believed that breast cancer was caused by a milk clot in a mammary duct. The Dutch professor Francois de la Boe Sylvius, a follower of Descartes, believed that all disease was the outcome of chemical processes, and that acidic lymph fluid was the cause of cancer. His contemporary Nicolaes Tulp believed that cancer was a poison that slowly spreads, and concluded that it was contagious.[102]

The first cause of cancer was identified by British surgeon Percivall Pott, who discovered in 1775 that cancer of the scrotum was a common disease among chimney sweeps. The work of other individual physicians led to various insights, but when physicians started working together they could make firmer conclusions.

With the widespread use of the microscope in the 18th century, it was discovered that the 'cancer poison' spread from the primary tumor through the lymph nodes to other sites ("metastasis"). This view of the disease was first formulated by the English surgeon Campbell De Morgan between 1871 and 1874.[103] The use of surgery to treat cancer had poor results due to problems with hygiene. The renowned Scottish surgeon Alexander Monro saw only 2 breast tumor patients out of 60 surviving surgery for two years. In the 19th century, asepsis improved surgical hygiene and as the survival statistics went up, surgical removal of the tumor became the primary treatment for cancer. With the exception of William Coley who in the late 1800s felt that the rate of cure after surgery had been higher before asepsis (and who injected bacteria into tumors with mixed results), cancer treatment became dependent on the individual art of the surgeon at removing a tumor. During the same period, the idea that the body was made up of various tissues, that in turn were made up of millions of cells, laid rest the humor-theories about chemical imbalances in the body. The age of cellular pathology was born.

When Marie Curie and Pierre Curie discovered radiation at the end of the 19th century, they stumbled upon the first effective non-surgical cancer treatment. With radiation also came the first signs of multi-disciplinary approaches to cancer treatment. The surgeon was no longer operating in isolation, but worked together with hospital radiologists to help patients. The complications in communication this brought, along with the necessity of the patient's treatment in a hospital facility rather than at home, also created a parallel process of compiling patient data into hospital files, which in turn led to the first statistical patient studies.

A founding paper of cancer epidemiology was the work of Janet Lane-Claypon, who published a comparative study in 1926 of 500 breast cancer cases and 500 control patients of the same background and lifestyle for the British Ministry of Health. Her ground-breaking work on cancer epidemiology was carried on by Richard Doll and Austin Bradford Hill, who published "Lung Cancer and Other Causes of Death In Relation to Smoking. A Second Report on the Mortality of British Doctors" followed in 1956 (otherwise known as the British doctors study). Richard Doll left the London Medical Research Center (MRC), to start the Oxford unit for Cancer epidemiology in 1968. With the use of computers, the unit was the first to compile large amounts of cancer data. Modern epidemiological methods are closely linked to current concepts of disease and public health policy. Over the past 50 years, great efforts have been spent on gathering data across medical practise, hospital, provincial, state, and even country boundaries, as a way to study the interdependence of environmental and cultural factors on cancer incidence.

Cancer patient treatment and studies were restricted to individual physicians' practices until World War II, when medical research centers discovered that there were large international differences in disease incidence. This insight drove national public health bodies to make it possible to compile health data across practises and hospitals, a process that many countries do today. The Japanese medical community observed that the bone marrow of victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was completely destroyed. They concluded that diseased bone marrow could also be destroyed with radiation, and this led to the discovery of bone marrow transplants for leukemia. Since World War II, trends in cancer treatment are to improve on a micro-level the existing treatment methods, standardize them, and globalize them as a way to find cures through epidemiology and international partnerships.

Research directions
Main article: Cancer research

Cancer research is the intense scientific effort to understand disease processes and discover possible therapies. The improved understanding of molecular biology and cellular biology due to cancer research has led to a number of new, effective treatments for cancer since President Nixon declared "War on Cancer" in 1971. Since 1971 the United States has invested over $200 billion on cancer research; that total includes money invested by public and private sectors and foundations.[104] Despite this substantial investment, the country has seen only a five percent decrease in the cancer death rate (adjusting for size and age of the population) between 1950 and 2005.[105]

Leading cancer research organizations and projects include the American Association for Cancer Research, the American Cancer Society (ACS), the American Society of Clinical Oncology, the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer, the National Cancer Institute, the National Comprehensive Cancer Network, and The Cancer Genome Atlas project at the NCI.

References

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General references

* Pazdur R, Wagman LD, Camphausen KA, Hoskins WJ, Eds. Cancer Management: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 11th ed. 2009.
* The Basic Science of Oncology 4th ed. Tannock IF, Hill RP et al. (eds.) (2005). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07138-774-9.
* Principles of Cancer Biology. Kleinsmith, LJ (2006). Pearson Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-80534-003-3.
* Parkin D, Bray F, Ferlay J, Pisani P (2005). "Global cancer statistics, 2002". CA Cancer J Clin 55 (2): 74–108. doi:10.3322/canjclin.55.2.74. PMID 15761078. http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/content/full/55/2/74. 
* Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective. World Cancer Research Fund (2007). ISBN 978-0-9722522-2-5. Full text
* Cancer Medicine, 6th Edition—Textbook
* Encyclopedia of Cancer—4 volume reference work
* Weinberg, Robert A. (September 1996). "How Cancer Arises; An explosion of research is uncovering the long-hidden molecular underpinnings of cancer—and suggesting new therapies" (PDF). Scientific American: 62–70. http://www.bme.utexas.edu/research/orly/teaching/BME303/Weinberg.pdf. "Introductory explanation of cancer biology in layman's language". 

External links
Search Wiktionary Look up cancer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Search Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cancer

* Cancer at the Open Directory Project

Lobster
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Lobster (disambiguation).
Lobster

American lobster, Homarus americanus
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Crustacea
Class: Malacostraca
Order: Decapoda
Infraorder: Astacidea
Family: Nephropidae
Dana, 1852
Subfamilies and Genera

* Neophoberinae
      o Acanthacaris
* Thymopinae
      o Nephropsis
      o Nephropides
      o Thymops
      o Thymopsis
* Nephropinae
      o Homarus
      o Nephrops
      o Homarinus
      o Metanephrops
      o Eunephrops
      o Thymopides

Clawed lobsters compose a family (Nephropidae, sometimes also Homaridae) of large marine crustaceans. Lobsters are economically important as seafood, forming the basis of a global industry that nets US$31.8 billion in trade annually.[citation needed]

Though several different groups of crustaceans are known as "lobsters," the clawed lobsters are most often associated with the name. They are also revered for their taste. Clawed lobsters are not closely related to spiny lobsters or slipper lobsters, which have no claws (chelae), or squat lobsters. The closest relatives of clawed lobsters are the reef lobster Enoplometopus and the three families of freshwater crayfish.

Contents
[hide]

* 1 Biology
      o 1.1 Symbion
* 2 Gastronomy
      o 2.1 History
      o 2.2 Catching
* 3 Capacity for pain
      o 3.1 Opioids
      o 3.2 Animal welfare issues
* 4 Lobsters in culture
* 5 List of clawed lobster species
* 6 References
* 7 External links

[edit] Biology

Lobsters are found in all the oceans of the world. They live on rocky, sandy, or muddy bottoms from the shoreline to beyond the edge of the continental shelf. They generally live singly in crevices or in burrows under rocks.

They are invertebrates, with a hard protective exoskeleton. Like most arthropods, lobsters must molt in order to grow, leaving them vulnerable during this time. During the molting process, several species may experience a change in color. Lobsters have 10 legs, with the front ones adapted to claws.

As arthropods, lobsters have not achieved the nervous system development of cepholopod molluscs, nor do they have the advantages of extraordinary eyesight. They do however, exhibit three remarkable evolutionary advances that have led to their great success: an exoskeleton: a strong, lightweight, form-fitted external covering and support, striated muscle: a quick, strong, lightweight form of muscle that makes rapid movement and flight possible, and articulation: the ability to bend appendeges at specific points.

Lobsters typically eat live food, consisting of fish, mollusks, other crustaceans, worms, and some plant life. Occasionally, they will scavenge if necessary, and may resort to cannibalism in captivity; however, this has not been observed in the wild. Although lobster skin has been found in the stomachs of lobsters, this is because lobsters will eat their shed skin after molting.[1] Lobsters grow throughout their lives and it is not unusual for a lobster to live for more than 100 years.[2] One such 100 year old lobster was donated to the Huntsman Marine Science Center in St. Andrews, New Brunswick. In fact, lobsters may exhibit "negligible senescence", in that they can effectively live indefinitely, barring injury, disease, capture, etc.[3] They can thus reach impressive sizes. According to the Guinness World Records, the largest lobster was caught in Nova Scotia, Canada, and weighed 20.15 kg (44.4 lb).

Although clawed lobsters, like most other arthropods, are largely bilaterally symmetrical, they often possess unequal, specialized claws, like the king crab. A freshly caught lobster will have a claw which is full and fleshy, not atrophied. The anatomy of the lobster includes the cephalothorax which is the head fused with the thorax, both of which are covered by the carapace, of chitinous composition, and the abdomen. The lobster's head consists of antennae, antennules, mandibles, the first and second maxillae, and the first, second, and third maxillipeds. Because a lobster lives in a murky environment at the bottom of the ocean, its vision is poor and it mostly uses its antennae as sensors. Studies have shown that the lobster eye is formed with a reflective structure atop a convex retina. In contrast, most complex eyes use refractive ray concentrators (lenses) and a concave retina.[4] The abdomen of the lobster includes swimmerets and its tail is composed of uropods and the telson.

Lobsters, like snails and spiders, have blue blood due to the presence of haemocyanin, which contains copper.[5] (In contrast, mammals and many other animals, have red blood due to the presence of haemoglobin, which contains iron.) Inside lobsters is a green goopy substance called tomalley, which serves as the hepatopancreas, fulfilling the functions of both liver and pancreas.[6]

In general, lobsters are 25 cm to 50 cm long ( 10 to 20 inches ) and move slowly by walking on the bottom of the sea floor. However, when they flee, they swim backwards quickly by curling and uncurling their abdomen. A speed of five meters per second (about 11 mph) has been recorded.[7] This is known as the caridoid escape reaction.

Symbion

The genus Symbion, the only member of the animal phylum Cycliophora, is found on the gills and mouthparts of lobsters.[8] To date it has only been found associated with lobsters.

[edit] Gastronomy
Lobster
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 100 kcal 410 kJ
Carbohydrates 0 g

• Sugars 0 g
• Dietary fibre 0 g

Fat 0.59 g

• saturated 0.107 g
• monounsaturated 0.091 g
• polyunsaturated 0.16 g

Protein 20.5 g
Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0 mg 0%
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 4 mg 267%
Niacin (Vit. B3) 4 mg 27%
Pantothenic acid (B5) 2 mg 40%
Vitamin B6 4 mg 308%
Folate (Vit. B9) 2 μg 1%
Vitamin C 0 mg 0%
Calcium 6 mg 1%
Iron 2 mg 16%
Magnesium 8 mg 2%
Phosphorus 15 mg 2%
Potassium 0 mg 0%
Zinc 15 mg 150%
Percentages are relative to US
recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database
A 3 kg European lobster
A dish including a European lobster, Dubrovnik
Japanese lobster served in creamy butter sauce

Lobster recipes include Lobster Newberg and Lobster Thermidor. Lobsters are sold with claws banded to prevent them from injuring each other or people. Lobsters cannot open claws when banded, which causes the claws to atrophy. Recently banded lobsters will not show this, and the claws will be full.

Lobsters may be prepared and cooked while alive (removing claws may not kill lobsters). Cooks place the live lobster in boiling water or steam. Lobsters are also served fried, grilled, or baked. Freezing the lobster may toughen the meat. A common misconception is that a lobster screams when boiled; this is due to steam escaping the shell, creating a whistling.

When boiling, the lobster is simmered for seven minutes for the first pound and three minutes for each additional pound.[9]

The majority of the meat is in the tail and the two front claws, but smaller quantities are in the legs and torso. Lobster is used variously, for example in soup, bisque or lobster rolls. Lobster meat may be dipped in clarified butter, resulting in a sweetened flavor. As with all shellfish, lobster is not kosher.

History

The European wild lobster, including the royal blue lobster of Audresselles, is more expensive and rare than the American lobster. It was consumed chiefly by the royal and aristocratic families of France and the Netherlands. Such scenes were depicted in Dutch paintings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

In North America, the American lobster did not become a popular food until the mid-19th century, when New Yorkers and Bostonians developed a taste; not until the invention of a special vessel, the lobster smack, did a commercial fishery flourish.[10] Prior to this time, eating lobster was considered a mark of poverty or as a food for indentured servants or lower members of society in Maine, Massachusetts and the Canadian Maritimes. Into the 1950s, people in these regions would bury lobster shells rather than dispose of them in their rubbish to not be seen to be eating lobster.[11][12] Prior to the American Revolutionary War, dock workers in Boston went on strike, protesting having to eat lobster more than three times a week,[citation needed] and servants specified in employment agreements that they would not eat lobster more than twice per week.[13] Lobsters were used as a fertilizer for farms.[citation needed] In Canada, outside of the rural outposts lobster was sold canned; New England's fresh lobster trade extended to Philadelphia.

The market for lobster changed with the transportation industry allowing live lobsters to be shipped from the ports to urban centres. Fresh lobster became a luxury food and a tourist attraction for the Maritime provinces and an export to Europe and Japan where it is especially expensive.

The high price of lobster led to creating "faux lobster". It is often made from pollock or other whitefish altered to look and taste similar to lobster. A few restaurants sell "langostino lobster". Langostino translates into prawn; the actual animal may be crab. The spiny lobster is also called langouste.

[edit] Catching
Commercial fishing
crustaceans
crab
crayfish
krill
lobster
shrimp
fishing industry
fisheries
I N D E X
This box: view • talk • edit

Lobsters are caught using baited, one-way traps with a color-coded marker buoy to mark cages. Lobster is fished in water between 1 and 500 fathoms, although some lobsters live at 2,000 fathoms. Cages are of plastic-coated galvanized steel or wood. A lobster fisher may tend between 10 and 2,000 traps. Around the year 2000, due to overfishing of some species and high demand lobster farming became more prevalent.[14] As of 2008, no lobster farming operation has achieved commercial success.

Capacity for pain
See also: Pain#In other species

Due to the ambiguous nature of suffering, the issue of lobster pain may be approached using an argument by analogy — that lobsters are similar to human biology or that behavior warrants assumptions that lobsters can feel pain.[15]

The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety tentatively concluded that "it is unlikely that [lobsters] can feel pain," though they note that "there is apparently a paucity of exact knowledge on sentience in crustaceans, and more research is needed." This conclusion is based on the lobster's simple nervous system. The report assumes that the violent reaction of lobsters to boiling water is a reflex to noxious stimuli.[16]

However, review by the Scottish animal rights group Advocate for Animals released in the same year reported that "scientific evidence ... strongly suggests that there is a potential for [lobsters] to experience pain and suffering," primarily because lobsters (and other decapod crustaceans) "have opioid receptors and respond to opioids (analgesics such as morphine) in a similar way to vertebrates," indicating that lobsters' reaction to injury changes when painkillers are applied. The similarities in lobsters' and vertebrates' stress systems and behavioral responses to noxious stimuli were given as additional evidence for their capacity for pain.[15]

A 2007 study at Queen's University, Belfast, suggested that crustaceans do feel pain.[17] In the experiment, when the antennae of prawns were rubbed with sodium hydroxide or acetic acid, the animals showed increased grooming of the afflicted area and rubbed it more against the side of the tank. Moreover, this reaction was inhibited by a local anesthetic, even though control prawns treated with only anesthetic did not show reduced activity. Professor Robert Elwood, who headed the study, argues that sensing pain is crucial to prawn survival, because it encourages them to avoid damaging behaviors. Some scientists responded, saying the rubbing may reflect an attempt to clean the affected area.[18]

In a subsequent 2009 study, Prof. Elwood and Mirjam Appel showed that hermit crabs make motivational tradeoffs between shocks and the quality of the shells they inhabit.[19] In particular, as crabs are shocked more intensely, they become increasingly willing to leave their current shells for new shells, and they spend less time deciding whether to enter those new shells. Moreover, because the researchers did not offer the new shells until after the electrical stimulation had ended, the change in motivational behavior was the result of memory of the noxious event, not an immediate reflex.

Opioids
Moche lobster, 200 A.D., Larco Museum Collection Lima, Peru
World's largest lobster sculpture in Shediac, New Brunswick.

In vertebrates, endogenous opioids are neurochemicals that moderate pain by interacting with opiate receptors. Opioid peptides and opiate receptors occur naturally in crustaceans, and although The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety claims that “at present no certain conclusion can be drawn,”[16] some have interpreted their presence as an indication that lobsters may be able to experience pain.[16][15] The aforementioned Scottish paper holds that lobsters' opioids may "mediate pain in the same way" as in vertebrates.[15]

Morphine, an analgesic, and naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, may affect a related species of crustacean (Chasmagnathus granulatus) in much the same way they affect vertebrates: injections of morphine into crabs produced a dose-dependent reduction of their defensive response to an electric shock.[20] (However, the attenuated defensive response could originate from either the analgesic or sedative properties of morphine, or both)[21] These findings have been replicated for other invertebrate species,[21] but similar data is not yet available for lobsters.

[edit] Animal welfare issues

The most common way of killing a lobster is by placing it, live, in boiling water, or by splitting: severing the body in half, lengthwise.

The boiling method (also used to kill crabs, crayfish and shrimp) is controversial because some believe that the lobster suffers. The practice is illegal in some places, such as in Reggio Emilia, Italy, where offenders face fines of up to €495.[22] The Norwegian study states that the lobster may be de-sensitized by placing it in a salt solution 15 minutes before killing it.

In 2006, British inventor Simon Buckhaven invented the CrustaStun, which electrocutes lobsters with a 110 V electric shock, killing them in five seconds. This ensures a quicker death for the lobster. Seafood wholesalers in Britain use a commercial version. A home version was available about 2006.

Lobsters in culture
Fishing boats in Yarmouth, Nova Scotia.

The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped the sea and its animals. Lobsters were often depicted in their art.[23]

Red Lobster is a chain of seafood restaurants, founded in 1968.

Lobster (magazine) is a twice yearly British magazine (June and December) focusing on parapolitics.

Lobsters dance a "Lobster Quadrille" in the eponymous chapter of Lewis Carroll's famous book Alice in Wonderland. It and the related lobster poems can be read here: "Will you, won’t you, will you, won’t you, won’t you join the dance?" and "Tis the voice of the Lobster; I heard him declare." [24]

In an episode of Friends, Phoebe Buffay speaks about the ability of lobsters to mate for life, and claims that they hold claws (instead of holding hands). Later, she refers to Ross and Rachel as "lobsters."

Ebirah, from the movie Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster, was a giant lobster in Toho's stable of kaiju.

List of clawed lobster species

This list contains all known species in the family Nephropidae:[25]

* Acanthacaris caeca
* Acanthacaris tenuimana
* Eunephrops bairdii
* Eunephrops cadenasi
* Eunephrops luckhursti
* Eunephrops manningi
* Homarinus capensis — Cape lobster
* Homarus americanus — American lobster
* Homarus gammarus — European lobster
* Metanephrops andamanicus — Andaman lobster
* Metanephrops arafurensis
* Metanephrops armatus
* Metanephrops australiensis — Australian scampi
* Metanephrops binghami — Caribbean lobster
* Metanephrops boschmai — bight lobster
* Metanephrops challengeri — New Zealand scampi
* Metanephrops formosanus
* Metanephrops japonicus — Japanese lobster
* Metanephrops mozambicus
* Metanephrops neptunus
* Metanephrops rubellus
* Metanephrops sagamiensis
* Metanephrops sibogae
* Metanephrops sinensis — China lobster

* Metanephrops thomsoni
* Metanephrops velutinus
* Nephropides caribaeus
* Nephrops norvegicus — Norway lobster
* Nephropsis acanthura
* Nephropsis aculeata — Florida lobsterette
* Nephropsis agassizii
* Nephropsis atlantica
* Nephropsis carpenteri
* Nephropsis ensirostris
* Nephropsis hamadai
* Nephropsis holthuisii
* Nephrops macphersoni
* Nephropsis malhaensis
* Nephropsis neglecta
* Nephropsis occidentalis
* Nephropsis rosea
* Nephropsis serrata
* Nephropsis stewarti
* Nephropsis suhmi
* Nephropsis sulcata
* Thymopides grobovi
* Thymops birsteini
* Thymopsis nilenta

References

1. ^ "Homarus americanus, Atlantic lobster". MarineBio.org. http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=533. Retrieved 2006-12-27.
2. ^ David Foster Wallace (2005). Consider the Lobster and Other Essays. Little, Brown & Company. ISBN 0-31-615611-6.
3. ^ Emerging Area of Aging Research: Long-Lived Animals with "Negligible Senescence", John C. Guerin. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1019 (1) , 518–520. (abstract)
4. ^ Land, M. F. (1976). "Superposition images are formed by reflection in the eyes of some oceanic decapod Crustacea". Nature 263: 764–765. doi:10.1038/263764a0.
5. ^ "Copper for life - Vital copper". ASE. http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/cda/11-14/biology/copch31pg1.html.
6. ^ Mcsheehy, Shona (2004). "Arsenic speciation in marine certified reference materials". Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 19: 373. doi:10.1039/b314101b. http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLinking/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=b314101b&JournalCode=JA.
7. ^ "The American lobster — frequently asked questions". St. Lawrence Observatory, Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2005-10-19. http://www.osl.gc.ca/homard/en/faq.html.
8. ^ M. Obst, P. Funch & G. Giribet (2005). "Hidden diversity and host specificity in cycliophorans: a phylogeographic analysis along the North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea". Molecular Ecology 14: 4427–4440. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02752.x. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02752.x.
9. ^ "Cooking lobsters". Atwood Lobster Company. http://www.atwoodlobster.com/site/cookinglobster.asp. Retrieved 2007-06-30.
10. ^ Woodard, Colin. The Lobster Coast. New York. Viking/Penguin, ISBN 0-670-03324-3, 2004, pp. 170-180
11. ^ Do Most People Know What They're Eating? | Metafilter
12. ^ Maine Today : Comments
13. ^ How lobster went up in the world, The Times Online
14. ^ http://articles.uwphoto.no/articles_folder/lobster_farming_in_Norway.htm
15. ^ a b c d Cephalopods and decapod crustaceans: their capacity to experience pain and suffering. Advocates for Animals. 2005. http://www.advocatesforanimals.org.uk/pdf/crustreport.pdf.
16. ^ a b c L. Sømme (2005). "Sentience and pain in invertebrates: Report to Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety". Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo.
17. ^ Stuart Barr, Peter R. Laming, Jaimie T. A. Dick, Robert W. Elwood (2007). "Nociception or pain in a decapod crustacean?". Animal Behavior. http://www.npr.org/blogs/bryantpark/images/2007/11/study.pdf.
18. ^ Sample, Ian. "Blow for fans of boiled lobster: crustaceans feel pain, study says", The Guardian, Nov 8, 2007.
19. ^ Robert W. Elwood, Mirjam Appel (2009). "Pain experience in hermit crabs?". Animal Behavior.
20. ^ M. Lozada, A. Romano & H. Maldonado (1988). "Effect of morphine and naloxone on a defensive response of the crab Chasmagnathus granulatus". Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 30 (3): 635–640. doi:10.1016/0091-3057(88)90076-7.
21. ^ a b V. E. Dyakonova (2001). "Role of opioid peptides in behavior of invertebrates". Journal of Evolutionary Biochemistry and Physiology 37: 335–347. doi:10.1023/A:1012910525424. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maik/joey/2001/00000037/00000004/00366536.
22. ^ Bruce Johnston (2004-03-06). "Italian animal rights law puts lobster off the menu". Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/03/07/wlob07.xml&sSheet=/news/2004/03/07/ixworld.html.
23. ^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997
24. ^ Chapter X, Alice in Wonderland, Lewis Carroll
25. ^ Tshudy, D (2003). "Clawed lobster (Nephropidae) diversity through time". Journal of Crustacean Biology 23: 178–186. doi:10.1651/0278-0372(2003)023[0178:CLNDTT]2.0.CO;2. http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&issn=0278-0372&volume=023&issue=01&page=0178.

External links
Search Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Homarus

* Lipke Holthuis (1991). Marine Lobsters of the World. Food and Agriculture Organization. http://nlbif.eti.uva.nl/bis/lobsters.php?menuentry=inleiding. 
* Atlantic Veterinary College Lobster Science Centre
* Lobster Recipes & Cooking Lobster Guides
* How to Cook Lobster, How to Eat Lobster

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobster"
Categories: True lobsters | Edible crustaceans | Seafood | Commercial crustaceans | Animal welfare

Привет радиоанону.

​

​​

​

Еб вашу мать, вы еще не спите?
sagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesagesage

Miria: abappel__, 79.9 - BGM ⋖⋯ dj Kana [skype: dj.kana] (28/44)
[05:10:19]
_tsu: Nataliya.A. , я так думал, что они тебя отсюда уже выжили.
[05:11:33]
abappel__: госсспади
[05:11:41]
abappel__: ну завали ебало
[05:11:43]
_tsu: Я к тому, что тут же народ грубый и злой в массе.
[05:12:14]
d1mk0: Х
[05:12:15]
d1mk0: В
[05:12:17]
d1mk0: А
[05:12:18]
d1mk0: Т
[05:12:19]
d1mk0: И
[05:12:21]
d1mk0: Т
[05:12:21]
El compаñero: брейк
[05:12:23]
El compаñero: аа
[05:12:25]
d1mk0: фих
[05:12:25]
abappel__: El compаñero: хуй тебе
[05:12:27]
El compаñero: Ты меня расстроил.
[05:12:32]
_tsu: слоу ^^
[05:12:36]
El compаñero: Это всё пинг.
[05:12:51]
abappel__: ну затнкись уже
[05:12:57]
abappel__: ко-ко-ко
[05:12:59]
Nataliya.A.: Да, тут все злые, грубые. Жалко мне их
[05:13:02]
nekone: к-к-к
[05:13:04]
nekone: КОПРО!
[05:13:08]
nekone: к-к-к
[05:13:10]
nekone: КУКЛОЁБЫ
[05:13:14]
abappel__: Nataliya.A.: иди нахуй со своей жалостью, овца
[05:13:15]
El compаñero: илитненьким
[05:13:22]
abappel__: зеленая
[05:13:24]
Ведроc: К-К-К-КОПРОБРЕЙКЕР!
[05:13:49]
Ведроc: да, пара завязывать
[05:13:54]
Nataliya.A.: Матерятся , ужас
[05:14:07]
El compаñero: для для для для
[05:14:11]
abappel__: длэ-длэээ-длэээ
[05:14:22]
abappel__: чянчян
[05:14:25]
abappel__: СУККККККА
[05:14:32]
_tsu: Не надо их жалеть же. ^^
[05:14:42]
Школолуэ: ХУЙ

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

Радиоанон ты меня слышишь?

>>1832482
на связи.
SAGE

Ладно, я тогда спать пошел.

>>1832498
оясуми мудило
SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

>>1832486
откуда эти логи, куклоёбушко?
олсо, я нихуя не понял, но не отказался бы вдуть дж кане :3

>>1832531
какие сучечка?

SAGE

>>1832543

этот >>1832457
и другие, выше в треде

>>1832567
конфа радиоанон, мудилушка.
Я ушел с вашей сраной конфы в радиочан.

sage

>>1832578

> Я ушел с вашей сраной конфы в радиочан.

???
c: cock

>>1832620
забей куклоёбушка.

сажа

>>1832633
ну роскажи роскажи роскажи
алсо, я не куклоёбушко, чини детектор, cy4apa

>>1832769
Мне похуй кто ты.
Я тебя куклоёбом не по детектору называю.
Такие дела.

SAGESAGESAGE

пикрандом
Сага
хуяга

бамп...я...здра...вот...эээ
^_^
проснулся.

>>1833464
Героический десуфаг поспал два часа и проснулся, чтобы бампать свой тред.
Я бы с тобой переспал, няшечка.

>>1833485
Чё? -_-

>>1833524
Ах ты сука!
Вайп начался, когда ты сюда зашел.
Уёбывай на свой удафф, быдло.

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

SAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGESAGE

>>1833587

Конденсаторы подключаются как и другие аппараты - через коммутационно-защитную аппаратуру: автомат или разъединитель с предохранителями. "Пусковой" ток у кондеров очень большой - м.б. и 100-кратный, но опасности особой не представляет, т.к. дуги не тянет, и очень короткий - единицы миллисекунд. Рабочий ток можно посчитать по приближенной формуле I=1,4хQ (мощность конд-ра в кВАр умноженная на 1,4 будет ток в А). ПУЭ требует, чтоб ком.-защ. аппаратура была рассчитана на ток увеличенный на 30%. Удвоеннаю мощность конд-ра в кВАр = этот ток в А с небольшим запасом, на это значение и надо выбирать автомат или предохранители.
Если конд-ры современные, то удобнее использовать провод ПВ3. Если старые - КМ, КЭК, КПС - любой.
Еще вопросы - в ЛС.

Вообще, ток конденсатора зависит, как известно, от напряжения и частоты, т.е. практически постоянен в обычных условиях. И НЕ зависит от нагрузки силового трансформатора.

Еще при подключении проверьте наличие разрядных резисторов. В современных - установлены сверху, возле клемм; в старых - либо встроены внутри, тогда значок резистора на шильдике, либо отсутствуют, тогда надо поставить ком 100-150 на каждые 25 квар.

>>1833777
Слишком сложно.

>>1833842
O !!!

Окружающая среда (природная, производственная и бытовая) таит в себе потенциальную опасность различного вида. Среди них — поражение электрическим током. С широким применением на производстве и в быту достижений научно-технического прогресса факторы этого риска возрастают, хотя современные электрические приборы и проходят аттестацию с точки зрения техники безопасности.

Опасность поражения электрическим током на производстве и в быту появляется при несоблюдении мер предосторожности, а также при отказе или неисправности электрического оборудования и бытовых приборов. Человек не может обнаружить без специальных приборов напряжение на расстоянии, оно выявляется лишь тогда, когда происходит прикосновение к токоведущим частям. По сравнению с другими видами производственного травматизма, электротравматизм составляет небольшой процент, однако по числу травм с тяжелым и особенно летальным исходом занимает одно из первых мест. На производстве из-за несоблюдения правил техники безопасности происходит 75% электропоражений.

Электрический ток представляет собой упорядоченное движение электрических зарядов. Сила тока в участке цепи прямо пропорциональна разности потенциалов, то есть напряжению на концах участка и обратно пропорциональна сопротивлению участка цепи.

Прикоснувшись к проводнику, находящемуся под напряжением, человек включает себя в электрическую цепь, если он плохо изолирован от земли или одновременно касается объекта с другим значением потенциала. В этом случае через тело человека проходит электрический ток.

Действие электрического тока на живую ткань носит разносторонний характер. Проходя через организм человека, электроток производит термическое, электролитическое, механическое, биологическое и световое воздействие.

При термическом действии происходит перегрев и функциональное расстройство органов на пути прохождения тока.

Электролитическое действие тока выражается в электролизе жидкости в тканях организма, в том числе крови, и нарушении ее физико-химического состава.

-_- Нет.Кажется я ещё не проснулся.

Механическое действие приводит к разрыву тканей, расслоению, ударному действию испарения жидкости из тканей организма. Механическое действие связано с сильным сокращением мышц вплоть до их разрыва.

Биологическое действие тока выражается в раздражении и перевозбуждении нервной системы.

>1834098

Развелось ,блядь, лампокрутов.

Световое действие приводит к поражению глаз.

Характер и глубина воздействия электрического тока на организм человека зависит от силы и рода тока, времени его действия, пути прохождения через тело человека, физического и психологического состояния последнего. Так, сопротивление человека в нормальных условиях при сухой неповрежденной коже составляет сотни килоом, но при неблагоприятных условиях может упасть до 1 килоома.

Ощутимым является ток около 1 мА. При большем токе человек начинает ощущать неприятные болезненные сокращения мышц, а при токе 12-15 мА уже не в состоянии управлять своей мышечной системой и не может самостоятельно оторваться от источника тока. Такой ток называется неотпускающим. Действие тока свыше 25 мА на мышечные ткани ведет к параличу дыхательных мышц и остановке дыхания. При дальнейшем увеличении тока может наступить фибрилляция сердца.

Доброе утро.

Переменный ток более опасен, чем постоянный. Имеет значение то, какими участками тела человек касается токоведущей части. Наиболее опасны те пути, при которых поражается головной или спинной мозг (голова-руки, голова-ноги), сердце и легкие (руки-ноги). Любые электроработы нужно вести вдали от заземленных элементов оборудования (в том числе водопроводных труб, труб и радиаторов отопления), чтобы исключить случайное прикосновение к ним.

Дорогой вайпер-кун! Как ты догадался вайпать релейтедом?

>>1834244
1.Я бампер ,а не вайпер. Посмотри суда >>1833464 и ужаснись.
2.Я тоже куклоеб ,а куклоеб -это звучит гордо.
3.Посмотри на ближайшую розетку и прикинь ,как я о вас всех забочусь.
Продолжим...

Характерным случаем попадания под напряжение является соприкосновение с одним полюсом или фазой источника тока. Напряжение, действующее при этом на человека, называется напряжением прикосновения. Особенно опасны участки, расположенные на висках, спине, тыльных сторонах рук, голенях, затылке и шее.

Повышенную опасность представляют помещения с металлическими, земляными полами, сырые. Особенно опасные – помещения с парами кислот и щелочей в воздухе. Безопасными для жизни является напряжение не выше 42 В для сухих, отапливаемых с токонепроводящими полами помещений без повышенной опасности, не выше 36 В для помещений с повышенной опасностью (металлические, земляные, кирпичные полы, сырость, возможность касания заземленных элементов конструкций), не выше 12 В для особо опасных помещений, имеющих химически активную среду или два и более признаков помещений с повышенной опасностью.

>>1834327
ВИН БЛЕАТЬ!!!

>>1834295

>Я тоже куклоеб ,а куклоеб -это звучит гордо.

Отрабатывали на манекене оказание первой помоще.
Пациент наебнуся минут через десять.
Теперь я пришел к Вам.

В случае, когда человек оказывается вблизи упавшего на землю провода, находящегося под напряжением, возникает опасность поражения шаговым напряжением. Напряжение шага – это напряжение между двумя точками цепи тока, находящимися одна от другой на расстоянии шага, на которых одновременно стоит человек. Такую цепь создает растекающийся по земле от провода ток. Оказавшись в зоне растекания тока, человек должен соединить ноги вместе и, не спеша, выходить из опасной зоны так, чтобы при передвижении ступня одной ноги не выходила полностью за ступню другой. При случайном падении можно коснуться земли руками, чем увеличить разность потенциалов и опасность поражения.

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САЖАКУКЛОЕБЫСОСУТХУЙПИЗДАТРУПЫКОТЁНКАВЫЕБАЛИСЛОНЫБЛЕВАНИВПИЗДУСВОЕЙМАТЕРИТВОЯБАБУШКАДРОЧИТТЕБЕНАЛИЦОПОКАТЫСПИШЬОБЛИЗАТЬТРУПСОПАРЫШАМИСАЖАКУКЛОЕБЫСОСУТХУЙПИЗДАТРУПЫКОТЁНКАВЫЕБАЛИСЛОНЫБЛЕВАНИВПИЗДУСВОЕЙМАТЕРИТВОЯБАБУШКАДРОЧИТТЕБЕНАЛИЦОПОКАТЫСПИШЬОБЛИЗАТЬТРУПСОПАРЫШАМИСАЖАКУКЛОЕБЫСОСУТХУЙПИЗДАТРУПЫКОТЁНКАВЫЕБАЛИСЛОНЫБЛЕВАНИВПИЗДУСВОЕЙМАТЕРИТВОЯБАБУШКАДРОЧИТТЕБЕНАЛИЦОПОКАТЫСПИШЬОБЛИЗАТЬТРУПСОПАРЫШАМИ

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Электрический ток оказывает на человека внутреннее воздействие, приводит к внешним травмам, электроударам и электрическому шоку.

САЖАКУКЛОЕБЫСОСУТХУЙПИЗДАТРУПЫКОТЁНКАВЫЕБАЛИСЛОНЫБЛЕВАНИВПИЗДУСВОЕЙМАТЕРИТВОЯБАБУШКАДРОЧИТТЕБЕНАЛИЦОПОКАТЫСПИШЬОБЛИЗАТЬТРУПСОПАРЫШАМИСАЖАКУКЛОЕБЫСОСУТХУЙПИЗДАТРУПЫКОТЁНКАВЫЕБАЛИСЛОНЫБЛЕВАНИВПИЗДУСВОЕЙМАТЕРИТВОЯБАБУШКАДРОЧИТТЕБЕНАЛИЦОПОКАТЫСПИШЬОБЛИЗАТЬТРУПСОПАРЫШАМИСАЖАКУКЛОЕБЫСОСУТХУЙПИЗДАТРУПЫКОТЁНКАВЫЕБАЛИСЛОНЫБЛЕВАНИВПИЗДУСВОЕЙМАТЕРИТВОЯБАБУШКАДРОЧИТТЕБЕНАЛИЦОПОКАТЫСПИШЬОБЛИЗАТЬТРУПСОПАРЫШАМИ

Внутреннее воздействие может быть термическое, электролитическое и биологическое.

Термическое воздействие - это ожоги, нагрев и повреждение кровеносных сосудов, перегрев сердца, мозга и других внутренних органов, что приводит к их функциональным расстройствам.

Электролитическое воздействие - это разложение органической жидкости, в том числе и крови, что вызывает значительные нарушения, как в её составе, так и в ткани в целом.

Доброго времени суток, Куклочан.

Биологическое воздействие. Нормально действующему организму свойственны определённые биохимические процессы и биоритмы, которые обеспечивают жизненные функции. При воздействии электрического тока они нарушаются.

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Электрические ожоги бывают двух видов: токовые и дуговые. Токовый (контактный) возникает при непосредственном прикосновении к токоведущей части из-за преобразования электрической энергии в тепловую. Как правило, это ожог кожи, т.к. кожа обладает во много раз большим сопротивлением, чем другие ткани тела. Токовый ожог возникает при работе на электроустановках с напряжением 1 – 2 кВ и является, в большинстве случаев, ожогом 1 - 2 степени (покраснение кожи и образование пузырей).

>>1834759
Мил.человек, отоспитесь. Ещё так рано по меркам выходного дня. Я поддержу тред, никуда он не денется. А вот здоровье-то не казенное.

Дуговой ожог возникает под воздействием электрической дуги и, так как температура дуги свыше 3500°С, такой ожог носит тяжёлый характер 3 - 4 степени (от обугливания кожи до обугливания подкожной сетчатки, мышц, сосудов, нервов, костей). Электрическая дуга может возникнуть между телом человека и токоведущей частью при напряжениях в электроустановках более 2 кВ.

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>>1834830
Одно лицо!
c:cajution предупреждает о чем-то...

Вот так легко и непринужденно Томохане останавливает тред.

Электрический знак - чёткое пятно серого или бледно жёлтого цвета диаметром 1 - 5 мм на коже.Поражённый участок кожи затвердевает подобно мозоли. Со временем верхний слой поражённой кожи сходит, и она приобретает первоначальный цвет, чувствительность и эластичность.

Все, магия Томохане кончилась.

Электрометализация кожи возникает при проникновении в кожу частиц металла вследствие его разбрызгивания и испарения под действием тока (при горении электрической дуги). Повреждённый участок становится жёстким и шероховатым, цвет его определяется цветом металла, проникшего в кожу. С течением времени больная кожа сходит, исчезают болезненные ощущения. При поражении глаз лечение длительное, сложное, травма может привести к потере зрения.

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Morgens. Чайку попью и снова за этот ненавистный гипсокартон.

>>1835172
Охаё, Философ.

>за этот ненавистный гипсокартон.

Ремонт?

Электроофтальмия (поражение глаз). Это воспаление наружных оболочек под воздействием мощного потока ультрафиолетовых лучей, находящихся в электрической дуге. Проявляется через 2 - 6 часов: покраснение и воспаление слизистых оболочек глаз, гнойное выделение, спазмы век, частичное ослепление. Пострадавший испытывает сильную головную боль, резкую боль в глазах, которая усиливается на свету, возникает светобоязнь.

>>1835193

Да. Только я не Философ.

Механические повреждения. Возникают из-за резкого непроизвольного сокращения мышц под действием тока, что приводит к разрыву кожи, кровеносных сосудов, нервных тканей, вывиху суставов, переломам костей.

>>1835318
Ой, прости.
Как я понимаю, с перепланировкой.

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>>1835348

Нет. Потолки.
Пустая прихоть, я бы лучше заделал паутинкой, зашпатлевал и прокрасил, получилось бы не хуже. Но указываю не я.

Электрический удар – это возбуждение живых тканей организма проходящим электрическим током,сопровождающееся резким, непроизвольным сокращением мышц. Электрический удар может привести к нарушению и даже полному прекращению деятельности жизненно важных органов - лёгких, сердца, а значит и к гибели организма. В зависимости от исхода поражения, электрические удары условно разделены на 4 степени:
1 степень - судорожное сокращение мышц без потери сознания;
2 степень - судорожное сокращение мышц с потерей сознания;
3 степень - потеря сознания и нарушение сердечной деятельности;
4 степень - клиническая смерть – переход от жизни к смерти, который наступает в момент прекращения деятельности сердца и лёгких. Отсутствуют все признаки жизни: нет дыхания, сердце не работает, зрачки расширены и не реагируют на свет, нет реакции на болевое раздражение. Длительность клинической смерти определяется временем с момента прекращения дыхания и сердечной деятельности до начала гибели клеток коры головного мозга. В обычных условиях это 4 – 5 минут, а при электротравмах – 7 – 8 минут.

Электрический удар – это возбуждение живых тканей организма проходящим электрическим током, сопровождающееся резким, непроизвольным сокращением мышц. Электрический удар может привести к нарушению и даже полному прекращению деятельности жизненно важных органов - лёгких, сердца, а значит и к гибели организма. В зависимости от исхода поражения, электрические удары условно разделены на 4 степени:
1 степень - судорожное сокращение мышц без потери сознания;
2 степень - судорожное сокращение мышц с потерей сознания;
3 степень - потеря сознания и нарушение сердечной деятельности;
4 степень - клиническая смерть – переход от жизни к смерти, который наступает в момент прекращения деятельности сердца и лёгких. Отсутствуют все признаки жизни: нет дыхания, сердце не работает, зрачки расширены и не реагируют на свет, нет реакции на болевое раздражение. Длительность клинической смерти определяется временем с момента прекращения дыхания и сердечной деятельности до начала гибели клеток коры головного мозга. В обычных условиях это 4 – 5 минут, а при электротравмах – 7 – 8 минут.

>>1835413 >>1835446
Опа!!! Начинаю глючить.

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>>1835411

>Но указываю не я.

Соболезную.

Электрический шок – реакция нервной системы организма в ответ на сильное раздражение электрическим током. Приводит к расстройству кровообращения, дыхания, повышению кровяного давления. Шок имеет две фазы: возбуждения и торможения. Стадия торможения характеризуется истощением нервной системы, учащением пульса, слабым дыханием, угнетённым состоянием, полной безучастностью к окружающему при полном сохранении сознания. Шоковое состояние может длиться от нескольких десятков минут до суток, после чего организм погибает.

Характер поражения током зависит от значения и рода тока, пути прохождения, длительности воздействия, индивидуальных особенностей человека, физиологического состояния в момент поражения.

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Источники информации:
www.ssga.ru - Теоретические основы курса «БЕЗОПАСНОСТЬ ЖИЗНЕДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ»

www.textreferat.com - Действие электрического тока на организм человека

do.rksi.ru - Действие электрического тока на организм человека

www.diagram.com.ua - Действие электрического тока на организм человека

bank.referatoff.ru - Воздействия электрического тока на организм человека

фсё финита ля электроэнергия

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vmSwhYD18DE

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Вайпер , а где ты достал вайпалку? Или вручную?

Guten Tag

>>1836730
Доброго.